{ "schemaVersion": "0.3", "generated": "2026-09-25", "about": "The caves The Scribe's Advantage names, from cave-dragon-occupation-master-2026-09-24 (45 caves; occupants, ages at move-in, gain and loss kinds), the 9/22 sample's curated snapshots, and the digitized tables (Chandler, Modelski, UN WUP 2025) near each pin, plus the three absences. Every snapshot is [year, population, source key, unit, confidence]. occupancy rows are [from, to, dragon, occupant, how gained, how lost, cave system, brief, same dragon new rider, note]. Chapters point at the 24k cut of the manuscript.", "threshold": { "marker": 10000, "option": "B", "anchorsB": [ [ -3500, 10000 ], [ -500, 45000 ], [ 100, 50000 ], [ 1700, 50000 ], [ 1900, 100000 ], [ 1950, 250000 ], [ 2026, 500000 ] ], "rule": "Two thresholds: a named cave forms at about ten thousand and is drawn from then on (hollow while below the display threshold); a background cave is drawn only above the display threshold for its year." }, "chapters": { "Prologue": "The Account", "Ch 1": "Red on the Snow", "Ch 2": "The Agricultural Down Payment", "Ch 3": "The Sneakers Strike Back", "Ch 4": "Those Who Bronze Together", "Ch 5": "What the Genome Actually Says", "Ch 6": "The Spoken Word, Its Magic and Misery", "Ch 7": "The New World Meets the ‘Civilized World’", "Ch 8": "The Scribe’s Advantage", "Ch 9": "The Dragon Learns to Take a Test", "Ch 10": "Caste and Calculus", "Ch 11": "The Stolen River", "Ch 12": "The Flight of the Dragon", "Ch 13": "Latin: A Republic of Letters Across Borders and Time", "Ch 14": "Institutional Divergence", "Ch 15": "The Gate and the Gatekeeper", "Ch 16": "Challenge and Response", "Ch 17": "The Deadweight Loss of Exclusion: Lost Einsteins", "Ch 18": "She’s Working 9 to 5, and Then Some", "Ch 19": "The Twentieth-Century Resets", "Ch 20": "The Summer of Civilization", "Ch 21": "The Student and the Teacher", "Ch 22": "The Dragon We Made Burns Us All", "Ch 23": "A Printing Press in Every Pocket", "Ch 24": "The Dragon That Refuses to Die: Disruption, Division, Drugged and Despised… Yet Hoarding On", "Ch 25": "My Son Cannot Read", "Afterword": "A Note from the Author" }, "sources": { "chandler1987": "Chandler, T. (1987). Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census. Digitized in Reba, Reitsma and Seto (2016), chandler.csv (V2), CC BY 4.0.", "modelski2003": "Modelski, G. (2003). World Cities: -3000 to 2000. Digitized in Reba, Reitsma and Seto (2016), modelskiAncient.csv and modelskiModern.csv (V2), CC BY 4.0.", "reba2016": "Reba, M., Reitsma, F. and Seto, K. C. (2016). Spatializing 6,000 years of global urbanization from 3700 BC to AD 2000. Scientific Data 3:160034. doi:10.1038/sdata.2016.34. figshare 10.6084/m9.figshare.2059494, 2059497, 2059500.", "wup2025": "United Nations, DESA, Population Division (2025). World Urbanization Prospects 2025, File 21: population of cities (Degree of Urbanisation), 1975 to 2050. Figures in thousands, converted.", "cliopatria": "Bennett, J. S. et al. (2025). Cliopatria: a geospatial database of world polities, 3400 BCE to 2024 CE. Scientific Data. github.com/Seshat-Global-History-Databank/cliopatria, CC BY 4.0.", "naturalearth": "Natural Earth 1:110m land (public domain).", "riverflow": "The Scribe's Advantage, river-flow.json (snapshot 2026-09-15): world population and literacy by era.", "book": "The Scribe's Advantage, manuscript (Solterra's cut, 2026-09-24k). Figures the book states.", "chandlerfox1974": "Chandler, T. and Fox, G. (1974). 3000 Years of Urban Growth. Academic Press. Used only where the 1987 census has no row.", "morris2010": "Morris, Ian (2010, 2013). Why the West Rules, for Now and The Measure of Civilization: largest-settlement series. Used as the third opinion where Chandler and Modelski disagree.", "wup2018": "United Nations DESA, Population Division (2018). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision, File 12, urban agglomerations with 300,000 inhabitants or more in 2018, 1950 to 2035. Values below were read from a mirror (populationstat.com) and from the twentieth-century table of Wikipedia's Historical urban community sizes; re-verify against the UN file in Phase A1.", "nissen2003": "Nissen, H. J. (2003), Uruk and the formation of the city: 250 ha at about 3100 BCE, about 600 ha inside the wall at about 2800 BCE; up to 50,000 residents at the peak, 80,000 to 90,000 with the environs. As reported in Wikipedia, Uruk.", "baker2002": "Baker, H. D. (2002) on Seleucid Uruk: perhaps 40,000 inhabitants on about 300 ha. As reported in Wikipedia, Uruk.", "villani1338": "Giovanni Villani, Nuova Cronica, book XI: about 90,000 mouths within the walls of Florence around 1338; modern readings of the same evidence run 90,000 to 120,000 at the 1325 peak.", "herlihy1985": "Herlihy, D. and Klapisch-Zuber, C. (1985). Tuscans and Their Families: the Florentine catasto of 1427, 37,144 inhabitants in the city.", "tuscan-census-1552": "Grand-ducal census of Florence, 1552, about 59,200 inhabitants; Chandler enters 59,216 for 1575.", "istat": "ISTAT, Italian censuses 1861 to 2021, resident population at present municipal boundaries (Rome and Florence; Wikipedia tables).", "rome-parish": "Rome parish censuses (stati delle anime) 1600 to 1800, as compiled by Chandler and de Vries; values from Wikipedia's Historical urban community sizes 17th to 19th century table.", "ons": "UK decennial censuses 1801 to 2021, Greater London area back-cast (Wikipedia, Demography of London).", "gla1939": "Greater London Authority estimate for 1939, the population peak, about 8.6 million.", "insee": "INSEE censuses: Paris commune 1801 to 2023; unite urbaine and aire d'attraction for the agglomeration (Wikipedia, Demographics of Paris).", "devries1984": "de Vries, Jan (1984). European Urbanization 1500 to 1800. Values from Wikipedia's Historical urban community sizes.", "turkstat": "Turkish Statistical Institute: Istanbul province censuses 1927 to 2000 and address-based registration 2010 to 2024 (Wikipedia, Demographics of Istanbul).", "ottoman-census-1885": "Ottoman census of 1885, Istanbul 873,565; Chandler enters 874,000 for 1890.", "nbs-china": "National Bureau of Statistics of China, censuses 1953, 1964, 1982, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, Beijing municipality (Beijing Statistical Yearbook, table 3-1; 2020 census communique).", "demog-beijing": "Wikipedia, Demographics of Beijing, historical population table (the 1949 figure).", "singstat": "Singapore Department of Statistics; Straits Settlements censuses 1824 to 1947 (Wikipedia, Demographics of Singapore).", "uscensus": "US Census Bureau, decennial censuses 1910 to 2020, Clark County, Nevada; 2025 estimate.", "dsc-dubai": "Dubai Statistics Centre (2010 to 2025); UAE censuses 1968 (Trucial States), 1975, 1985, 1995; Lorimer's Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf (1908) for about 1900. Values from the historical population table in Wikipedia, Dubai.", "kosis": "Statistics Korea (KOSIS) and Seoul Metropolitan Government, censuses 1949 to 2020 (Wikipedia, Seoul, historical population table).", "gg-chosen": "Government-General of Chosen censuses 1925, 1935, 1940 for Keijo. Values from memory of the published census totals; flagged medium and to be verified against KOSIS in Phase A.", "joseon-registers": "Joseon household registers: 103,328 inside the capital in 1426; about 200,000 by the mid-eighteenth century, over 300,000 with omissions (Seoul Museum of History; Seoul Metropolitan Government history pages).", "iraq-cso": "Iraq Central Statistical Organization: 1947 census (city proper 515,459; liwa 784,763); November 2024 census, Baghdad 7,837,463.", "wiki-hucs": "Wikipedia, Historical urban community sizes: a compilation of Chandler 1987, Chandler and Fox 1974, de Vries 1984, Modelski 2003 and single-city scholarship. Used only as an index to those sources; the underlying scholar is named where the page names one.", "Wikipedia": "Wikipedia, Florence: 50,000 in 1200; wiki-hucs 50,000 to 110,000", "INSEE-table": "INSEE-table 530,000 for 1789; chandler1987 547,000 for 1800; wiki-hucs 581,000", "Seoul": "Seoul Metropolitan Government history pages: about 250,000 in 1890, above 200,000 through the 1890s", "Lorimer's": "Lorimer's Gazetteer (1908) via dsc-dubai compiled table", "hamalainen2008": "Hamalainen, P. (2008). The Comanche Empire. Yale University Press. Peak population estimates of 20,000 to 40,000.", "pool1991": "Pool, I. (1991). Te Iwi Maori: A New Zealand Population Past, Present and Projected. Auckland University Press. About 100,000 in 1769." }, "systems": { "akkad": "Akkadian cave system (Sargon)", "ur-iii": "Ur III system", "babylonia": "Babylonian system (Hammurabi and after)", "assyria": "Neo-Assyrian system", "neo-babylon": "Neo-Babylonian system", "achaemenid": "Achaemenid system", "macedon": "Macedonian and Hellenistic systems", "rome": "Roman system", "byzantium": "Byzantine system", "hittite": "Hittite system", "egypt-nk": "New Kingdom Egyptian system", "caliphate": "Caliphal system (Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid)", "fatimid": "Fatimid system", "ayyubid": "Ayyubid system", "mamluk": "Mamluk system", "mongol": "Mongol systems (the empire, the Ilkhanate, the Golden Horde)", "timurid": "Timurid system", "ottoman": "Ottoman system", "safavid": "Safavid Iran", "iran": "Iranian system", "spain": "Spanish system (Castile and the empire)", "portugal": "Portuguese system", "uk-empire": "British system", "france-empire": "French system", "japan-empire": "Japanese system", "usa": "American cave system", "nevada": "Nevada cave (inside the American system)", "china": "Chinese system", "india": "Indian system", "inca": "Tawantinsuyu", "triple-alliance": "Triple Alliance", "lithuania": "Grand Duchy of Lithuania", "poland-lithuania": "Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth", "russia": "Russian, then Soviet, system", "golden-horde": "Golden Horde", "austria": "Habsburg system", "italy": "Italian state", "uae": "UAE federation of seven emirate caves", "malaysia": "Federation of Malaysia", "songhai": "Songhai system", "mali": "Mali system", "saadi": "Saadi Moroccan system", "germany": "German occupation system (1940 to 1944)", "korea-north": "DPRK", "korea-south": "Korean system", "gran-colombia": "Gran Colombia", "papal": "Papal States", "tuscany": "Tuscan state", "kyivan-rus": "Kyivan Rus system", "al-andalus": "al-Andalus", "almohad": "Almohad system", "almoravid": "Almoravid system", "vandal": "Vandal kingdom", "visigoth": "Visigothic kingdom", "ostrogoth": "Ostrogothic Italy", "crusader": "Crusader states", "france-mandate": "French Mandate", "netherlands": "Dutch VOC system", "mysore": "Mysore", "bukhara": "Bukhara", "taiping": "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom", "greece": "Greek state", "iraq": "Iraq", "turkey": "Republic of Turkey", "egypt": "Egypt", "mexico": "Mexico", "peru": "Peru", "ecuador": "Ecuador", "libya": "Libya", "syria": "Syria", "lebanon": "Lebanon", "ukraine": "Ukraine", "uzbekistan": "Uzbekistan", "mali-republic": "Republic of Mali", "roc-taiwan": "Republic of China on Taiwan", "venice": "Venetian system", "catalan": "Crown of Aragon", "carthage": "Carthaginian system", "phoenicia": "Phoenician city network (no system: competing caves)" }, "dragons": { "abbasid": { "name": "Abbasid caliphate", "spans": [ [ "adult", 750, 1258 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#44612a" }, "acciaioli": { "name": "Acciaioli of Florence", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "akkad": { "name": "Akkad under Sargon and his heirs", "spans": [ [ "adult", -2334, -2154 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "al-andalus": { "name": "Umayyad al-Andalus", "spans": [ [ "adult", 929, 1031 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 12 L755 to L757 the libraries of Cordoba", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "allied-1918": { "name": "Allied occupation (Britain, France, Italy, Greece)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "almohad": { "name": "Almohad", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "almoravid": { "name": "Almoravid", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "anglo-french-1860": { "name": "Anglo-French expedition", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "aq-qoyunlu": { "name": "Aq Qoyunlu", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "arab-kingdom": { "name": "Arab Kingdom of Syria", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "aram": { "name": "Aram-Damascus", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "argos": { "name": "Argos", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "arma": { "name": "Arma pashalik", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "assyria": { "name": "Neo-Assyrian empire", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "athens-polis": { "name": "Athenian polis", "spans": [ [ "adult", -600, -338 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 7 L373 Athens held forty thousand free adults and generated everything", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "austria": { "name": "Habsburg Austria", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#7a3b12" }, "ayyubid": { "name": "Ayyubid sultanate", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "babylon-native": { "name": "Babylonian native dynasties", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "babylon-old": { "name": "Babylon, First Dynasty", "spans": [ [ "adult", -1894, -1595 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 4 L214 to L215 scribal Akkadian", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "baekje": { "name": "Baekje", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#44612a" }, "bolshevik": { "name": "Bolsheviks (Soviet Russia)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#44612a" }, "bukhara": { "name": "Shaybanid Uzbeks, then the Emirate of Bukhara", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#2d3f8a" }, "buyid": { "name": "Buyid amirs", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "byzantion-polis": { "name": "Byzantion (Greek city)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "byzantium": { "name": "Byzantium (the Roman east)", "spans": [ [ "adult", 330, 1453 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#b0306a" }, "caliphate-early": { "name": "Rashidun and Umayyad caliphate", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#9b2d20" }, "caliphate-egypt": { "name": "Caliphal governors and autonomous dynasties of Egypt (Umayyad, Abbasid, Tulunid, Ikhshidid)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "carthage": { "name": "Carthage", "spans": [ [ "adult", -700, -146 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 4 L224 Phoenician counter-case, abundant exit", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "catalan": { "name": "Catalan Company under the Crown of Aragon", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "caxamarca": { "name": "Caxamarca polity", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "china": { "name": "China", "spans": [ [ "young", -1600, -770 ], [ "adult", -770, 1978 ], [ "adult", 1978, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": false, "regressions": [ [ 1487, 1905, "bite→ouroboros posture" ] ], "events": [ [ 605, "wisdom", "Keju: the filter as protocol, not building" ], [ 1487, "bite", "The Bite: the Eight-Legged Essay" ], [ 1793, "ouroboros", "Qianlong refuses Macartney: ouroboros" ], [ 1905, "wisdom", "Keju abolished after 1,300 years" ], [ 1966, "scar", "Cultural Revolution: the burn" ], [ 1977, "recovery", "Winter gaokao: 5.7M candidates" ], [ 1978, "transition", "Reform: the managed burn begins" ], [ 2003, "clench", "The Great Firewall: the haijin with better engineering" ] ], "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "coalition-1814": { "name": "Sixth and Seventh Coalition occupations", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#44612a" }, "cochin-raja": { "name": "Kingdom of Cochin", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "commune-1871": { "name": "Paris Commune", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "crusader": { "name": "Kingdom of Jerusalem", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "damascus-local": { "name": "Burid and Zengid rulers", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "danish": { "name": "Danish crown under Cnut", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#6a5a14" }, "dubai-sheikhdom": { "name": "Al Maktoum Dubai", "spans": [ [ "young", 1833, 1971 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "ecuador": { "name": "Ecuador", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "egypt": { "name": "Republic of Egypt", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "egypt-khedivate": { "name": "Muhammad Ali dynasty", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "eight-nation": { "name": "Eight-Nation Alliance", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#255f99" }, "fatimid": { "name": "Fatimid caliphate", "spans": [ [ "adult", 969, 1171 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; al-Azhar", "hue": "#44612a" }, "florence": { "name": "Florentine commune and republic", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1300, 1532 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#6a5a14" }, "france": { "name": "Capetian, Valois and Bourbon France", "spans": [ [ "young", 987, 1100 ], [ "adult", 1100, 1789 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "france-mandate": { "name": "French Mandate", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#6a5a14" }, "france-republic": { "name": "France after 1789 (republics, Napoleonic empires, restorations)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "frankish-duchy": { "name": "Frankish Duchy of Athens", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#7a3b12" }, "germany": { "name": "Germany", "spans": [ [ "young", 800, 1348 ], [ "adult", 1348, 1945 ], [ "wiseElder", 1949, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": false, "regressions": [ [ 1933, 1945, "adult that scattered its own physicists" ] ], "events": [ [ 1517, "wisdom", "Sola scriptura dissolves its own priesthood" ], [ 1810, "wisdom", "Humboldt: research and teaching in one building" ], [ 1933, "regression", "Göttingen destroyed by statute in two years" ], [ 1949, "recovery", "Surface fire: recovery in years, not generations" ] ], "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "ghurid": { "name": "Ghurid", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#6a5a14" }, "goguryeo": { "name": "Goguryeo", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "golden-horde": { "name": "Golden Horde (Mongol)", "spans": [ [ "young", 1240, 1502 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 21 L1253: what sat down in the cave was not another adult", "hue": "#255f99" }, "gran-colombia": { "name": "Gran Colombia", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "greece": { "name": "Greece", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "hafsid-local": { "name": "Hafsid and local rulers", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "hellenistic": { "name": "Hellenistic kingdoms", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "hetmanate": { "name": "Cossack Hetmanate", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "hittite": { "name": "Hittite kingdom", "spans": [ [ "adult", -1650, -1180 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Hattusa tablet archives; Ch 4 L218 cave system", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "hotaki": { "name": "Hotaki Afghans", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#2d3f8a" }, "ilkhanate": { "name": "Ilkhanate (Mongol)", "spans": [ [ "young", 1256, 1335 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 21 L1253 reads the Mongol successor states as not adult", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "inca": { "name": "Tawantinsuyu (Inca)", "spans": [ [ "young", 1200, 1438 ], [ "adult", 1438, 1533 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Prologue L64: Cajamarca took an adult with real treasure", "hue": "#44612a" }, "india": { "name": "India", "spans": [ [ "young", -2600, -600 ], [ "adult", -600, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": true, "regressions": [], "events": [ [ 770, "wisdom", "The Sindh embassy: one corridor changes two continents" ], [ 1380, "bite", "Kerala: born clenched" ], [ 1950, "wisdom", "The constitution says no to the Manusmriti" ], [ 1951, "transition", "IIT Kharagpur: the pipeline is laid" ], [ 1991, "wisdom", "Liberalization: exits open, the pipeline delivers abroad first" ] ], "hue": "#a0442a" }, "iran": { "name": "Iran", "spans": [ [ "young", -3000, -550 ], [ "adult", -550, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": false, "regressions": [ [ 1979, 2026, "adult in maintained clench" ] ], "events": [ [ 550, "wisdom", "Gundeshapur: the academy that seeds Baghdad" ], [ 1258, "scar", "The Mongol slaying of the shared cave" ], [ 1935, "transition", "Pahlavi opening: women a third of enrollment, female judges" ], [ 1979, "regression", "THE CHOSEN OUROBOROS, regression by constitution" ], [ 2000, "recovery", "Reform era: 65% of university entrants are women" ], [ 2005, "clench", "The claw re-closes in real time: quotas bar women from 77 fields" ] ], "hue": "#115e4a" }, "iraq": { "name": "Iraq (kingdom, then republic)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "isin-larsa": { "name": "Isin and Larsa", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "italy": { "name": "Kingdom, then Republic, of Italy", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "jalayirid": { "name": "Jalayirid sultanate", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "japan": { "name": "Japan", "spans": [ [ "baby", -1000, 250 ], [ "young", 250, 794 ], [ "adult", 794, 1945 ], [ "wiseElder", 1946, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": false, "regressions": [], "events": [ [ 1635, "clench", "Sakoku: the corridors seal, but only the corridors" ], [ 1868, "transition", "Meiji: stop containing the carriers" ], [ 1945, "scar", "The surface fire" ], [ 2011, "wisdom", "The 9.1 test: absorbed, diagnosed, self-corrected" ] ], "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "jihadist-2012": { "name": "Ansar Dine and AQIM occupation", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "karakhanid": { "name": "Karakhanid", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "karamanli": { "name": "Karamanli pashas", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#255f99" }, "kassite": { "name": "Kassite Babylon", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#7a3b12" }, "khwarazm": { "name": "Khwarazmian", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#6a5a14" }, "knights-st-john": { "name": "Knights of St John", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "korea-north": { "name": "Democratic People’s Republic of Korea", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1948, 2026 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; lock names the North Korean state as the no-exit example; Ch 14 L848", "hue": "#6a5a14" }, "korea-south": { "name": "South Korea", "spans": [ [ "baby", -4000, -300 ], [ "young", -300, 682 ], [ "adult", 682, 1945 ], [ "wiseElder", 1987, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": false, "regressions": [ [ 1910, 1945, "colonized" ] ], "events": [ [ 958, "transition", "Gwageo: the exam arrives from China" ], [ 1446, "wisdom", "Sejong promulgates hangul" ], [ 1910, "regression", "Colonized, Japanese occupation" ], [ 1950, "scar", "War and partition: the twin experiment begins" ], [ 1987, "transition", "Democratization: exits open under the same filter" ] ], "hue": "#255f99" }, "kyivan-rus": { "name": "Kyivan Rus", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1037, 1240 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 21 L1253: the Rus dragon was an adult (conflicts with dragon-stages russia young 988 to 1240)", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "later-mesopotamian": { "name": "Later Mesopotamian holders, not modeled one by one", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#44612a" }, "latin-empire": { "name": "Latin Empire of Constantinople", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#7d1f2f" }, "lebanon": { "name": "Lebanon", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#6a5a14" }, "libya": { "name": "Libya", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "lithuania": { "name": "Grand Duchy of Lithuania", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#2d3f8a" }, "macedon": { "name": "Macedon and the Hellenistic kingdoms", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "malaysia": { "name": "Federation of Malaysia", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "mali": { "name": "Mali Empire", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#255f99" }, "mali-republic": { "name": "Republic of Mali", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#255f99" }, "mamluk": { "name": "Mamluk sultanate", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1250, 1517 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 3 L201 a dragon that changed hands rather than changed shape; Ch 11 L673", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "maratha": { "name": "Maratha confederacy", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "massina": { "name": "Massina caliphate", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "mexica": { "name": "Mexica, then the Triple Alliance", "spans": [ [ "young", 1325, 1428 ], [ "adult", 1428, 1521 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 7 L325 painted codices as treasure", "hue": "#7a3b12" }, "mexico": { "name": "Mexico", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "mongol": { "name": "Mongol empire and its uluses", "spans": [ [ "young", 1206, 1370 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 21 L1253", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "mycenae": { "name": "Mycenaean palace", "spans": [ [ "young", -1600, -1200 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Prologue L40: Mycenae never matured", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "mysore": { "name": "Mysore (Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "neo-babylon": { "name": "Neo-Babylonian empire", "spans": [ [ "adult", -626, -539 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json", "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "netherlands": { "name": "Dutch East India Company", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "nevada-mormon": { "name": "Mormon mission", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "normans-sicily": { "name": "Norman Kingdom of Sicily", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#5e3a78" }, "odoacer": { "name": "Odoacer", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "ostrogoth": { "name": "Ostrogothic kingdom", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "papal-states": { "name": "Papal States", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#255f99" }, "peru": { "name": "Peru", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#44612a" }, "phoenicia-tyre": { "name": "Tyre (Phoenician city)", "spans": [ [ "adult", -1000, -332 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 4 L224", "hue": "#2d3f8a" }, "poland": { "name": "Poland (with UNR allies)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "poland-lithuania": { "name": "Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "portugal": { "name": "Portugal", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "ptolemaic": { "name": "Ptolemaic Egypt", "spans": [ [ "adult", -305, -30 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; the Library, Ch 8 L462", "hue": "#7d1f2f" }, "qara-qoyunlu": { "name": "Qara Qoyunlu", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "quitu": { "name": "Quitu and Cara polities", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#9b2d20" }, "rebels-1857": { "name": "Rebel government of 1857", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "roc-taiwan": { "name": "Republic of China on Taiwan", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "rome": { "name": "Rome", "spans": [ [ "young", -509, -200 ], [ "adult", -200, 476 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed (adult span); young span proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json", "hue": "#2d3f8a" }, "russia": { "name": "Russia", "spans": [ [ "adult", 988, 1240 ], [ "adult", 1700, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": true, "regressions": [ [ 1240, 1480, "cave colonized: the maw in the cave" ], [ 1917, 1991, "adult, state-sealed, domain-split" ], [ 2014, 2026, "adult re-clenching, carriers scattering" ] ], "events": [ [ 1240, "regression", "Cave colonized by the Horde, and the pattern absorbed" ], [ 1703, "transition", "Peter forces the window open" ], [ 1861, "wisdom", "Emancipation + the golden age" ], [ 1917, "regression", "The maw takes the cave" ], [ 1940, "bite", "Lysenko: doctrine protected from evidence" ], [ 1970, "clench", "Saturation, certified" ], [ 1991, "recovery", "The opening, and the Constantinople mechanism" ], [ 2022, "regression", "The maw rides again: Ukraine, and the fourth scattering" ] ], "hue": "#2d6b8a" }, "saadi": { "name": "Saadi Morocco", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "samanid": { "name": "Samanid", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "san-marco": { "name": "Republic of San Marco", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "sasanian-619": { "name": "Sasanian occupation", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "seleucid": { "name": "Seleucid kingdom", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "seljuk": { "name": "Great Seljuk sultans", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#255f99" }, "shun": { "name": "Shun (Li Zicheng)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#7a3b12" }, "singapore": { "name": "Singapore", "spans": [ [ "baby", 1300, 1819 ], [ "young", 1819, 1959 ], [ "wiseElder", 1965, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": false, "regressions": [], "events": [ [ 1965, "transition", "Independence: the filter is built before the cave" ] ], "hue": "#7d1f2f" }, "songhai": { "name": "Songhai, with the Timbuktu scholarly network", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1468, 1591 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 11 L635: the West African madrasa network was an adult dragon", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "spain": { "name": "Castile, then Spain", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1085, 2026 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 12 L755 Toledo translators; Ch 7 L326 the alien dragon with different treasure", "hue": "#a0442a" }, "syria": { "name": "Syrian Arab Republic", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#44612a" }, "taifa": { "name": "Taifa kingdom", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "taiping": { "name": "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "timurid": { "name": "Timurid", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1405, 1507 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ulugh Beg observatory as a mint; Timur himself unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "toucouleur": { "name": "Toucouleur empire", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "tuareg": { "name": "Tuareg", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "tuareg-kunta": { "name": "Tuareg and Kunta", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#7a3b12" }, "turkey": { "name": "Turkey", "spans": [ [ "young", 1071, 1453 ], [ "adult", 1453, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": true, "regressions": [ [ 1580, 1850, "adult clenched (270 years)" ] ], "events": [ [ 1453, "transition", "Constantinople: the cave changes hands" ], [ 1492, "wisdom", "Harbors the Sephardim Spain expelled" ], [ 1580, "clench", "THE CLENCHING ACT: Taqi al-Din's observatory demolished, 22 Jan 1580" ], [ 1729, "recovery", "Müteferrika press: the ban cracks, briefly" ], [ 1922, "regression", "The empire ends, 'sat clenched for 270 years while Europe compounded past it' (Fig 9b)" ], [ 1928, "wisdom", "Atatürk pries the gate open, and severs the archive" ], [ 2016, "clench", "The hinge test: purges of the carrier class" ] ], "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "tuscany": { "name": "Medici Duchy, then Grand Duchy, of Tuscany", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#6a5a14" }, "tuscany-lorraine": { "name": "Habsburg-Lorraine Tuscany", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#44612a" }, "uae": { "name": "United Arab Emirates", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1971, 2026 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "ugarit": { "name": "Ugarit kingdom", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "uk": { "name": "United Kingdom", "spans": [ [ "young", -50, 410 ], [ "baby", 410, 890 ], [ "adult", 890, 1854 ], [ "wiseElder", 1854, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": false, "regressions": [ [ 410, 890, "baby" ] ], "events": [ [ 878, "wisdom", "Alfred's Wessex: the fourth age, held for a time" ], [ 1833, "wisdom", "Abolition by act of Parliament" ], [ 1854, "transition", "Northcote to Trevelyan: the tail spat out" ] ], "hue": "#9b2d20" }, "ukraine": { "name": "Ukraine", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#7d1f2f" }, "umayyad": { "name": "Umayyad caliphate", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#255f99" }, "unr": { "name": "Ukrainian People’s Republic and Hetmanate (1917 to 1920 governments)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#7a3b12" }, "ur-city": { "name": "Ur city-state", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#7a3b12" }, "ur-iii": { "name": "Ur III", "spans": [ [ "adult", -2112, -2004 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "uruk-city": { "name": "Uruk temple administration", "spans": [ [ "young", -3500, -3300 ], [ "adult", -3300, -2334 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "cave-populations-sample-2026-09-22.json, proposed", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "usa": { "name": "United States", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1636, 1945 ], [ "wiseElder", 1945, 2026 ] ], "staging": "locked", "basis": "dragon-stages.json (four-age lock, 9/21)", "contested": false, "regressions": [], "events": [ [ 1787, "wisdom", "A constitution with amendable text" ], [ 1861, "scar", "Civil War: prescribed burn on its own extraction economy" ], [ 1945, "transition", "Bush's letter → NSF: the river gets a standing appropriation" ], [ 1970, "clench", "Saturation crossings begin" ] ], "hue": "#6a5a14" }, "uzbekistan": { "name": "Uzbekistan", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "vandal": { "name": "Vandal kingdom", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1f4e79" }, "venice-republic": { "name": "Republic of Venice", "spans": [ [ "adult", 1100, 1797 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "proposed in this document, 2026-09-24; not yet in dragon-stages.json; Ch 13 L817 printing, Ch 10 L582 double-entry", "hue": "#115e4a" }, "visigoth": { "name": "Visigothic kingdom", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#1d6b73" }, "wessex": { "name": "Wessex, the English crown before the rest of England was gathered", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#4b2d6b" }, "whites": { "name": "Denikin’s Armed Forces of South Russia", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "wu-six-dynasties": { "name": "Eastern Wu and the Six Dynasties", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#255f99" }, "zamorin": { "name": "Zamorin of Calicut", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#255f99" }, "saudi-arabia": { "name": "Saudi Arabia", "spans": [ [ "adult", 2017, 2026 ] ], "staging": "proposed", "basis": "Ch 18 L891 (24k): an adult using borrowed wise-elder tools; the gates still controlled after the 2017 reforms. Earlier years unstaged.", "hue": "#7d1f2f" }, "latin-christendom": { "name": "Latin Christendom (the university caves)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged: the book names the Latin network (Ch 13) without an age", "hue": "#3f5f1f" }, "dutch-republic": { "name": "The Dutch Republic", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged: named in passing, no age", "hue": "#2d3f8a" }, "khmer-rouge": { "name": "Democratic Kampuchea (the Khmer Rouge)", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged: Ch 19 names it, no age", "hue": "#9b2d20" }, "haiti": { "name": "Haiti", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged: named, no age", "hue": "#255f99" }, "null": { "name": null, "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged", "hue": "#8a2f55" }, "egypt-pharaonic": { "name": "Pharaonic Egypt", "spans": [], "staging": "unstaged", "basis": "unstaged: scored in civilizations.json for fate, not staged by age", "hue": "#6a5a14" } }, "backgroundLinks": { "1": [ [ 1800, 1899, "france-republic" ] ], "2": [ [ 1800, 1899, "france-republic" ] ], "4": [ [ 1871, 1919, "germany" ] ], "7": [ [ 1936, 1944, "germany" ] ], "8": [ [ 1950, 1990, "germany" ] ], "9": [ [ 1991, 2024, "germany" ] ], "11": [ [ 1800, 1999, "uk" ] ], "16": [ [ 1800, 1899, "iran" ] ], "19": [ [ 1200, 1599, "mamluk" ] ], "20": [ [ 1400, 1999, "turkey" ] ], "21": [ [ 1800, 1899, "egypt-khedivate" ] ], "23": [ [ 1900, 1999, "france-mandate" ] ], "24": [ [ 1924, 2024, "turkey" ] ], "26": [ [ 1900, 1999, "italy" ] ], "28": [ [ 1800, 1999, "uk" ] ], "30": [ [ 1709, 2024, "uk" ] ], "33": [ [ 1500, 1799, "india" ], [ 1800, 1899, "uk" ] ], "34": [ [ 1700, 1899, "uk" ] ], "35": [ [ 1800, 1999, "uk" ] ], "36": [ [ 1947, 2024, "india" ] ], "37": [ [ 1800, 2099, "mexico" ] ], "41": [ [ 1776, 2024, "usa" ] ], "44": [ [ -1300, -1201, "later-mesopotamian" ] ], "45": [ [ -800, -601, "later-mesopotamian" ] ], "46": [ [ -600, -501, "later-mesopotamian" ] ], "47": [ [ -600, -301, "later-mesopotamian" ] ], "48": [ [ -400, -201, "macedon" ], [ -200, -1, "later-mesopotamian" ] ], "49": [ [ -100, 399, "rome" ] ], "50": [ [ 300, 699, "byzantium" ] ], "51": [ [ 600, 699, "caliphate-early" ], [ 700, 799, "al-andalus" ] ], "52": [ [ 700, 999, "caliphate-egypt" ], [ 1200, 1299, "abbasid" ] ], "53": [ [ 800, 999, "caliphate-egypt" ] ], "54": [ [ 1000, 1099, "caliphate-egypt" ], [ 1100, 1199, "damascus-local" ] ], "55": [ [ 1100, 1299, "ayyubid" ] ], "56": [ [ 1900, 1999, "syria" ] ], "57": [ [ 1900, 1999, "egypt" ] ], "58": [ [ 1900, 1999, "syria" ] ], "59": [ [ 1900, 2099, "syria" ] ], "61": [ [ 1922, 1991, "russia" ] ], "66": [ [ -1500, -801, "egypt-pharaonic" ] ], "72": [ [ 1700, 1799, "tuscany-lorraine" ], [ 1800, 1899, "france-republic" ] ], "73": [ [ 1581, 1795, "dutch-republic" ] ], "76": [ [ 1300, 1599, "india" ] ], "79": [ [ 1721, 1916, "russia" ] ], "80": [ [ 1900, 1999, "russia" ] ], "81": [ [ 1900, 2099, "uzbekistan" ] ], "89": [ [ -100, -1, "rome" ] ], "90": [ [ 600, 1299, "byzantium" ] ], "92": [ [ 1200, 1399, "mongol" ] ], "94": [ [ 1645, 1911, "china" ] ], "95": [ [ 1800, 1899, "taiping" ] ], "96": [ [ 1900, 1999, "china" ] ], "97": [ [ 1912, 1949, "china" ], [ 1950, 2024, "roc-taiwan" ] ], "98": [ [ 1868, 1945, "japan" ] ], "99": [ [ 1950, 2024, "china" ] ], "101": [ [ 1900, 1999, "france-republic" ] ], "105": [ [ 1500, 1699, "spain" ] ], "106": [ [ 1500, 2099, "spain" ] ], "108": [ [ -1600, -1001, "china" ] ], "109": [ [ -1000, -751, "china" ] ], "112": [ [ -202, 237, "china" ] ], "114": [ [ 265, 425, "china" ] ], "117": [ [ 587, 627, "china" ] ], "118": [ [ 623, 910, "china" ] ], "119": [ [ 961, 1027, "china" ] ], "120": [ [ 1028, 1278, "china" ] ], "121": [ [ 1126, 1235, "china" ] ], "122": [ [ 1294, 1374, "china" ] ], "123": [ [ 1375, 1644, "china" ] ], "130": [ [ 1400, 1599, "inca" ] ], "131": [ [ 1500, 1899, "spain" ] ], "132": [ [ 1800, 2099, "peru" ] ], "133": [ [ 1992, 2024, "russia" ] ], "135": [ [ 1200, 1399, "india" ] ], "142": [ [ 1200, 1399, "golden-horde" ] ], "145": [ [ 1547, 1720, "russia" ] ], "148": [ [ 900, 999, "caliphate-early" ], [ 1000, 1199, "fatimid" ] ], "149": [ [ 1800, 1899, "egypt-khedivate" ] ], "150": [ [ 1900, 1999, "uk" ] ], "151": [ [ 1900, 2099, "egypt" ] ], "156": [ [ 1100, 1299, "florence" ] ], "159": [ [ -2000, -1601, "egypt-pharaonic" ] ], "164": [ [ -400, -1, "ptolemaic" ] ], "174": [ [ -300, -101, "macedon" ] ], "175": [ [ -200, 99, "macedon" ] ], "176": [ [ 0, 299, "macedon" ] ], "177": [ [ 200, 399, "macedon" ] ], "178": [ [ 300, 499, "macedon" ] ], "179": [ [ 400, 599, "macedon" ] ], "181": [ [ 800, 999, "samanid" ] ], "182": [ [ 1000, 1199, "india" ] ], "183": [ [ 1000, 1099, "iran" ], [ 1100, 1199, "abbasid" ], [ 1200, 1299, "mongol" ] ], "185": [ [ 1300, 1499, "timurid" ], [ 1500, 1599, "bukhara" ] ], "186": [ [ 1500, 1799, "bukhara" ] ], "188": [ [ 900, 999, "france" ] ], "190": [ [ 1300, 1399, "catalan" ], [ 1400, 1499, "acciaioli" ] ], "191": [ [ 1900, 1999, "spain" ] ], "196": [ [ 1800, 1999, "italy" ] ], "200": [ [ 215, 643, "iran" ] ], "201": [ [ 900, 999, "iran" ], [ 1000, 1099, "buyid" ] ], "202": [ [ 1300, 1499, "jalayirid" ] ], "203": [ [ 1400, 1599, "aq-qoyunlu" ] ], "204": [ [ 1900, 1999, "iraq" ] ], "205": [ [ 1900, 2099, "iraq" ] ], "206": [ [ 2000, 2099, "iraq" ] ], "224": [ [ 1900, 1999, "france-republic" ] ], "225": [ [ 1900, 2099, "france-republic" ] ], "229": [ [ 900, 1099, "uk" ], [ 1200, 1799, "uk" ] ], "231": [ [ 1800, 1899, "gran-colombia" ] ], "234": [ [ 700, 1899, "papal-states" ] ], "236": [ [ 1800, 1899, "italy" ] ], "237": [ [ 1900, 2099, "italy" ] ], "238": [ [ 1100, 1299, "uk" ] ], "239": [ [ 900, 1799, "france" ] ], "240": [ [ 1800, 1899, "france-republic" ] ], "241": [ [ 1800, 1899, "france-republic" ] ], "242": [ [ 1800, 1899, "france-republic" ] ], "243": [ [ 1800, 1999, "france-republic" ] ], "248": [ [ 1800, 1899, "tuscany-lorraine" ] ], "268": [ [ 600, 799, "macedon" ] ], "269": [ [ 1000, 1099, "karakhanid" ] ], "270": [ [ 1100, 1299, "karakhanid" ] ], "271": [ [ 1200, 1399, "mongol" ] ], "272": [ [ 1500, 1599, "bukhara" ] ], "273": [ [ 1700, 1899, "bukhara" ] ], "274": [ [ 1800, 1999, "greece" ] ], "275": [ [ 1395, 1897, "korea-south" ] ], "276": [ [ 1800, 1999, "korea-south" ] ], "277": [ [ 1948, 2024, "korea-south" ] ], "280": [ [ -400, -1, "rome" ] ], "281": [ [ 300, 499, "rome" ] ], "282": [ [ 500, 599, "ostrogoth" ] ], "288": [ [ 1500, 1599, "india" ] ], "291": [ [ 400, 599, "china" ] ], "300": [ [ 1400, 1599, "mexica" ] ], "307": [ [ 1200, 1499, "hafsid-local" ], [ 1500, 1599, "knights-st-john" ] ], "314": [ [ -400, -301, "macedon" ] ], "316": [ [ 300, 399, "byzantium" ], [ 400, 499, "rome" ] ], "318": [ [ 1300, 1399, "venice-republic" ], [ 1400, 1499, "acciaioli" ], [ 1600, 1699, "turkey" ] ], "319": [ [ -239, 237, "iran" ] ], "328": [ [ 911, 1125, "china" ] ], "332": [ [ 1400, 1499, "qara-qoyunlu" ] ], "333": [ [ 1900, 2099, "ukraine" ] ], "336": [ [ 1500, 1699, "poland-lithuania" ] ], "343": [ [ -2300, -2101, "akkad" ] ], "352": [ [ 1400, 1599, "india" ] ], "355": [ [ 900, 1099, "al-andalus" ] ], "356": [ [ 1000, 1199, "almoravid" ] ], "357": [ [ 1100, 1199, "almohad" ], [ 1200, 1299, "hafsid-local" ] ], "358": [ [ 1300, 1399, "hafsid-local" ] ], "360": [ [ 1500, 1599, "saadi" ] ], "361": [ [ 1100, 1299, "ghurid" ] ], "362": [ [ 1800, 1899, "france-republic" ] ], "365": [ [ 900, 999, "china" ] ], "366": [ [ 1200, 1299, "tuareg" ], [ 1300, 1399, "mali" ], [ 1400, 1499, "tuareg" ] ], "367": [ [ 1400, 1599, "songhai" ] ], "371": [ [ 1400, 1599, "lithuania" ] ], "382": [ [ 1500, 1599, "portugal" ], [ 1600, 1699, "india" ] ], "387": [ [ 1200, 1599, "spain" ] ], "390": [ [ 1800, 1899, "mexico" ] ], "391": [ [ 1800, 1899, "mexico" ] ], "394": [ [ 1800, 2099, "ecuador" ] ], "396": [ [ 794, 1187, "japan" ] ], "397": [ [ 1188, 1332, "japan" ] ], "399": [ [ 1500, 1599, "japan" ] ], "400": [ [ 1600, 1869, "japan" ] ], "401": [ [ 1953, 2024, "japan" ] ], "402": [ [ 1200, 1299, "china" ] ], "403": [ [ 1502, 1737, "iran" ] ], "404": [ [ 1788, 1923, "iran" ] ], "405": [ [ 1924, 1978, "iran" ] ], "406": [ [ 1979, 2024, "iran" ] ], "423": [ [ 1800, 1899, "dubai-sheikhdom" ] ], "425": [ [ 1932, 2024, "saudi-arabia" ] ], "436": [ [ 1900, 1999, "arab-kingdom" ] ], "441": [ [ 682, 935, "korea-south" ] ], "442": [ [ 922, 1394, "korea-south" ] ], "443": [ [ 1948, 2024, "korea-north" ] ], "445": [ [ 324, 554, "india" ] ], "456": [ [ 1900, 1999, "china" ] ], "464": [ [ 1700, 1799, "iran" ] ], "468": [ [ 1300, 1499, "lithuania" ] ], "481": [ [ 1900, 1999, "singapore" ] ], "487": [ [ 710, 792, "japan" ] ], "488": [ [ 1300, 1499, "india" ] ], "492": [ [ 1500, 1599, "india" ] ], "493": [ [ 1100, 1999, "portugal" ] ], "494": [ [ 1900, 1999, "portugal" ] ], "495": [ [ 1900, 1999, "portugal" ] ], "499": [ [ 900, 999, "china" ] ], "505": [ [ 1900, 2099, "portugal" ] ], "511": [ [ 1400, 1499, "singapore" ] ], "519": [ [ -3000, -2501, "egypt-pharaonic" ] ], "520": [ [ -2500, -2201, "egypt-pharaonic" ] ], "524": [ [ 400, 799, "visigoth" ] ], "525": [ [ 700, 999, "al-andalus" ] ], "526": [ [ -800, -601, "argos" ], [ -600, -501, "athens-polis" ], [ -500, -401, "argos" ], [ -400, -301, "athens-polis" ], [ -300, -101, "macedon" ], [ -100, -1, "rome" ] ], "530": [ [ -3000, -1701, "india" ] ], "539": [ [ -3400, -2401, "uruk-city" ], [ -2400, -2301, "akkad" ], [ -2000, -1901, "isin-larsa" ], [ -1900, -1701, "later-mesopotamian" ] ], "540": [ [ -2100, -2001, "ur-iii" ] ], "541": [ [ -1800, -1001, "later-mesopotamian" ], [ -1000, -901, "babylon-native" ], [ -900, -801, "later-mesopotamian" ], [ -700, -601, "later-mesopotamian" ] ], "543": [ [ 1000, 1199, "uk" ] ], "544": [ [ 800, 1299, "kyivan-rus" ] ], "551": [ [ -318, -171, "india" ] ], "566": [ [ 1804, 1806, "haiti" ] ], "567": [ [ 1806, 2024, "haiti" ] ], "602": [ [ -1200, -1101, "later-mesopotamian" ] ], "608": [ [ 1400, 1499, "timurid" ], [ 1500, 1699, "bukhara" ] ], "618": [ [ -300, -201, "macedon" ] ], "619": [ [ 1900, 1999, "greece" ] ], "620": [ [ 1900, 1999, "greece" ] ], "621": [ [ 1900, 2099, "greece" ] ], "635": [ [ 1000, 1299, "spain" ] ], "637": [ [ 1100, 1199, "spain" ] ], "642": [ [ 500, 599, "china" ] ], "643": [ [ -750, -219, "china" ] ], "684": [ [ 1900, 2099, "libya" ] ], "685": [ [ 2000, 2099, "libya" ] ], "687": [ [ 1900, 2099, "mali-republic" ] ], "698": [ [ 2000, 2099, "uae" ] ] }, "caves": [ { "id": "uruk", "name": "Uruk", "lat": 31.3225, "lon": 45.6364, "kind": "city", "formation": -3500, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "abandoned", "collapse": 700, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 29, 37, 52, 53 ], "n": 4 }, { "ch": "Ch 1", "lines": [ 71, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80 ], "n": 10 }, { "ch": "Ch 2", "lines": [ 111 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 6", "lines": [ 240 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 303 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 8", "lines": [ 336, 341, 373 ], "n": 3 }, { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 712 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 17", "lines": [ 865 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 20", "lines": [ 1024 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 23", "lines": [ 1137, 1185 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 25", "lines": [ 1245, 1259, 1264, 1281 ], "n": 4 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -3500, 14000, "modelski2003", "area_estimate", "low" ], [ -3300, 40000, "modelski2003", "area_estimate", "medium" ], [ -2800, 80000, "modelski2003", "area_estimate", "medium" ], [ -2500, 50000, "chandler1987", "area_estimate", "medium" ], [ -2300, 75000, "wiki-hucs", "area_estimate", "low" ], [ -200, 40000, "baker2002", "area_estimate", "low" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -3500, -2334, "uruk-city", "Uruk temple administration (Eanna gate)", "formed", "gathered", null, false, false, "The first cave the book visits; writing about 3300 BCE." ], [ -2334, -2154, "akkad", "Akkad (Sargon)", "gathered", "collapsed", "akkad", false, false, "First cave system in the record (Ch 1 L116). Sargon dates are Middle Chronology." ], [ -2154, -2112, "uruk-city", "Uruk re-emerged (Utu-hengal)", "re_emerged", "gathered", null, false, false, "Akkad falls; the tunnels seal; Uruk expels the Gutians." ], [ -2112, -2004, "ur-iii", "Ur III", "gathered", "collapsed", "ur-iii", false, false, "Ur is the head cave." ], [ -2004, 700, "later-mesopotamian", "Isin, Larsa, Babylon and every later holder to the Sasanians", "changed_hands", "abandoned", null, false, false, "Not modeled holder by holder (sample choice). Seleucid Uruk still about 40,000 (baker2002)." ] ], "basis": "Modelski enters about 14,000 at 3500 BCE; Middle Uruk about 100 ha at 100 to 200 per ha (sample: modelski2003, nissen2003). Book: Uruk held twenty thousand the morning the first tablet dried (Ch 7 L373)." }, { "id": "ur", "name": "Ur", "lat": 30.9626, "lon": 46.1031, "kind": "city", "formation": -2800, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "abandoned", "collapse": -500, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 1", "lines": [ 80 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 252, 291 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 8", "lines": [ 330, 337 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 18", "lines": [ 933 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1191 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -2800, 12000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -2500, 10000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -2400, 10000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -2300, 20000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -2200, 40000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -2100, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -2000, 20000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -1900, 10000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -2800, -2334, "ur-city", "Ur city-state", "formed", "gathered", null, false, false, "One of the dozen Sumerian caves (Ch 1 L116); Enheduanna high priestess at Ur (Ch 17 L1115)." ], [ -2334, -2154, "akkad", "Akkad (Sargon)", "gathered", "collapsed", "akkad", false, false, "" ], [ -2112, -2004, "ur-iii", "Ur III (Ur-Nammu and heirs)", "formed", "slain", "ur-iii", false, false, "Head cave of its own system; the edubba as credentialing monopoly (lock, three conditions)." ], [ -2004, -1985, "isin-larsa", "Elam", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "Elamite garrison after the sack; then Isin." ], [ -1985, -1763, "isin-larsa", "Isin, then Larsa", "changed_hands", "gathered", null, false, true, "" ], [ -1763, -500, "later-mesopotamian", "Babylon and later holders", "gathered", "abandoned", "babylonia", false, false, "The Euphrates moved away; the cave emptied (river stolen by geography, not by a dragon)." ] ], "basis": "Early Dynastic Ur; Chandler enters 65,000 for 2000 BCE (sample note on Uruk)." }, { "id": "babylon", "name": "Babylon", "lat": 32.5364, "lon": 44.4208, "kind": "city", "formation": -1900, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "abandoned", "collapse": 200, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 4", "lines": [ 176, 177 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 8", "lines": [ 354 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1191 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -1700, 60000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -1600, 60000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -1200, 75000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -1100, 75000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -1000, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -900, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -800, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -700, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -650, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -600, 200000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -500, 200000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -430, 200000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -400, 200000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -300, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -1894, -1595, "babylon-old", "Babylon, First Dynasty (Hammurabi)", "formed", "slain", "babylonia", false, false, "Hammurabi gathers the plain (Larsa 1763 BCE). Hittite raid of Mursili I ends the dynasty." ], [ -1595, -1155, "kassite", "Kassite dynasty", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "babylonia", false, false, "The longest dynasty in Babylon’s record; Amarna-age scribes (Ch 4 L215)." ], [ -1155, -729, "babylon-native", "Babylonian native dynasties", "re_emerged", "gathered", null, false, false, "" ], [ -729, -626, "assyria", "Neo-Assyrian empire", "gathered", "changed_hands", "assyria", false, false, "Sennacherib destroys the city 689 BCE [CHECK]; Esarhaddon rebuilds." ], [ -626, -539, "neo-babylon", "Neo-Babylonian empire (Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar)", "re_emerged", "gathered", "neo-babylon", false, false, "UNESCO: capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 to 539 BCE." ], [ -539, -331, "iran", "Achaemenid Persia", "gathered", "gathered", "achaemenid", false, false, "Cyrus takes the city without a sack." ], [ -331, -141, "macedon", "Macedon (Alexander), then Seleucid", "gathered", "changed_hands", "macedon", false, false, "Alexander dies here 323 BCE; Seleucia on the Tigris drains the cave." ], [ -141, 200, "iran", "Parthian Iran", "changed_hands", "abandoned", "iran", false, false, "Babylon empties below the marker; the cave has moved to Seleucia and Ctesiphon." ] ], "basis": "Amorite Babylon; Chandler places it among the largest cities by 1700 BCE (to verify against chandler.csv)." }, { "id": "hattusa", "name": "Hattusa", "lat": 40.0192, "lon": 34.6153, "kind": "city", "formation": -1650, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "abandoned", "collapse": -1180, "parents": [], "chapters": [], "snapshots": [ [ -1600, 30000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -1360, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -1300, 60000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -1200, 60000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -1650, -1180, "hittite", "Hittite kingdom", "formed", "collapsed", "hittite", false, false, "Held a cave system across Anatolia and northern Syria; it broke back into the small caves it was built from (Ch 4 L218). Abandoned around 1180 BCE (National Geographic)." ] ], "basis": "Capital from Hattusili I; modern estimates 40,000 to 50,000 at peak (low confidence)." }, { "id": "ugarit", "name": "Ugarit", "lat": 35.6017, "lon": 35.7822, "kind": "city", "formation": null, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": true, "status": "abandoned", "collapse": -1185, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 4", "lines": [ 176, 180 ], "n": 2 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -1400, 10000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -1360, 24000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -1300, 10000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -1200, 10000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -1450, -1340, "ugarit", "Ugarit kingdom", "formed", "gathered", "egypt-nk", false, false, "Under Egyptian influence." ], [ -1340, -1185, "ugarit", "Ugarit kingdom as Hittite vassal", "gathered", "collapsed", "hittite", false, true, "Burned and never reoccupied (Ch 4 L218)." ] ], "basis": "Below the marker: city about 6,000 to 8,000, kingdom about 25,000 [CHECK]. Kept because the book names it; render hollow." }, { "id": "mycenae", "name": "Mycenae", "lat": 37.7308, "lon": 22.7564, "kind": "city", "formation": null, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": true, "status": "abandoned", "collapse": -468, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 38 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 4", "lines": [ 176 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -1360, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -1300, 6000, "book", "area_estimate", "low" ], [ -1200, 30000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -1600, -1200, "mycenae", "Mycenaean palace", "formed", "collapsed", null, false, false, "Gilt enough to fill a grave; no line on the scorecard (Prologue L40). Collapsed palace by palace (Ch 4 L218)." ], [ -1200, -468, "argos", "Argos", "changed_hands", "abandoned", null, false, false, "A village on the old citadel until Argos destroys it about 468 BCE." ] ], "basis": "Below the marker: a palace town of a few thousand [CHECK]; the book uses it for the young dragon that never matured (Prologue L40)." }, { "id": "athens", "name": "Athens", "lat": 37.9715, "lon": 23.7257, "kind": "city", "formation": -600, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 4", "lines": [ 171 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 303, 308, 309, 312 ], "n": 4 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 591 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 18", "lines": [ 881, 882, 888, 925 ], "n": 4 }, { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1188 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -430, 155000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -400, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -100, 75000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1370, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 35000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 35000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1578, 36000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 33000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1664, 22000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1669, 9000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 12000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1845, 27800, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1851, 31125, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 181000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 571000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 1140000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1970, 2450000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 3002974, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 3300259, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 3318212, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 3264098, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 3261410, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 3303110, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 3331926, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 3383458, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 3330386, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 3269219, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 3101979, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -600, -338, "athens-polis", "Athenian polis", "formed", "gathered", null, false, false, "Athens faded (Ch 24 L1405)." ], [ -338, -146, "macedon", "Macedon and the Hellenistic kings", "gathered", "gathered", "macedon", false, false, "Chaeronea; garrisons come and go." ], [ -146, 395, "rome", "Rome", "gathered", "changed_hands", "rome", false, false, "Sulla sacks the city 86 BCE [CHECK]." ], [ 395, 1204, "byzantium", "Byzantium", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "byzantium", false, false, "The cave empties below the marker." ], [ 1205, 1311, "frankish-duchy", "Frankish Duchy of Athens (de la Roche, Brienne)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "crusader", false, false, "Fourth Crusade fiefdom." ], [ 1311, 1388, "catalan", "Catalan Company, Crown of Aragon", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "catalan", false, false, "" ], [ 1388, 1395, "acciaioli", "Acciaioli of Florence", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1395, 1402, "venice-republic", "Venice", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "venice", false, false, "" ], [ 1402, 1456, "acciaioli", "Acciaioli restored", "re_emerged", "gathered", null, false, false, "Tributary to the Despot of Morea from 1444." ], [ 1456, 1687, "turkey", "Ottoman", "gathered", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "The Acropolis holds until 1458 [CHECK]." ], [ 1687, 1688, "venice-republic", "Venice (Morosini)", "changed_hands", "abandoned", "venice", true, false, "The Parthenon explodes during this siege; the Venetians leave within months." ], [ 1688, 1833, "turkey", "Ottoman", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "" ], [ 1833, 1941, "greece", "Greece", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "greece", false, false, "Capital from 1834 [CHECK]; the cave refills above the marker." ], [ 1941, 1944, "germany", "Germany", "colonized", "changed_hands", "germany", true, false, "" ], [ 1944, 2026, "greece", "Greece", "re_emerged", "alive", "greece", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Archaic Athens; the book counts forty thousand free adults in the classical city (Ch 7 L373). Fell below the marker in the middle ages: about 1,000 hearths, 4,000 to 5,000 people in 1395 [CHECK]." }, { "id": "alexandria", "name": "Alexandria", "lat": 31.2001, "lon": 29.9187, "kind": "city", "formation": -300, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 8", "lines": [ 381 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 516 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 23", "lines": [ 1180 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -300, 300000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -200, 300000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -100, 1000000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 1, 400000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 100, 500000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 200, 600000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 300, 500000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 361, 125000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 400, 200000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 500, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 600, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 622, 94000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 700, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 730, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 800, 95000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 860, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 881, 160000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 900, 175000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1090, 12000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1175, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1250, 65000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 65000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1384, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 35000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1693, 15000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1798, 4000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1828, 12528, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1848, 134000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 138000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1862, 164400, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1875, 212000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1897, 9900, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 314000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 540000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 1100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1970, 2250000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 2647675, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 3069954, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 3518630, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 3843104, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 4090540, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 4477718, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 4933017, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 5441285, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 5938458, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 6870513, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 7266957, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -331, -30, "ptolemaic", "Macedon, then the Ptolemies", "founded", "gathered", "macedon", false, false, "The Library; the librarian as scribe (Ch 8 L411)." ], [ -30, 395, "rome", "Rome", "gathered", "changed_hands", "rome", false, false, "" ], [ 395, 619, "byzantium", "Byzantium", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "byzantium", false, false, "" ], [ 619, 628, "iran", "Sasanian Iran", "colonized", "changed_hands", "iran", true, false, "" ], [ 628, 641, "byzantium", "Byzantium", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "byzantium", false, false, "" ], [ 641, 645, "caliphate-early", "Rashidun caliphate", "colonized", "changed_hands", "caliphate", false, false, "Capital moves to Fustat; the long decline begins." ], [ 645, 646, "byzantium", "Byzantium (Manuel’s landing)", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "byzantium", true, false, "" ], [ 646, 969, "caliphate-egypt", "Caliphal governors and autonomous dynasties", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "caliphate", false, false, "" ], [ 969, 1171, "fatimid", "Fatimid", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "fatimid", false, false, "" ], [ 1171, 1250, "ayyubid", "Ayyubid", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "ayyubid", false, false, "" ], [ 1250, 1517, "mamluk", "Mamluk", "changed_hands", "colonized", "mamluk", false, false, "" ], [ 1517, 1798, "turkey", "Ottoman", "gathered", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "The cave empties below the marker." ], [ 1798, 1801, "france-republic", "France (Bonaparte)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", true, false, "" ], [ 1801, 1882, "egypt-khedivate", "Ottoman, then the Muhammad Ali dynasty", "re_emerged", "colonized", "ottoman", false, false, "British landing of 1807 [CHECK] as an event. Muhammad Ali refills the cave." ], [ 1882, 1956, "uk", "Britain", "colonized", "changed_hands", "uk-empire", false, false, "The 1882 bombardment." ], [ 1956, 2026, "egypt", "Egypt", "re_emerged", "alive", "egypt", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Ptolemaic capital; above the marker within a generation of founding. Fell below it under late Ottoman rule: about 4,000 (EB 1911) to 8,000 people by 1798." }, { "id": "carthage", "name": "Carthage", "lat": 36.8528, "lon": 10.3233, "kind": "city", "formation": -700, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "abandoned", "collapse": 700, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 4", "lines": [ 186 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -600, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -500, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -430, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -400, 200000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -300, 500000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -200, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -100, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 100, 250000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 200, 300000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 300, 300000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 361, 66000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 400, 270000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 500, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 622, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -814, -146, "carthage", "Carthage", "founded", "slain", "carthage", false, false, "Abundant exit: a scribe unhappy in Tyre could sail to Carthage (Ch 4 L224). Rome razes it after the siege of 149 to 146 BCE." ], [ -146, -44, null, "No occupant: the cave stands empty", "abandoned", "re_emerged", null, false, false, "A cave with no keeper at the seam, because there is no surplus left to sort; the ground was cleared." ], [ -44, 439, "rome", "Rome (Caesar’s colony)", "founded", "colonized", "rome", false, false, "UNESCO: Roman refoundation on the orders of Julius Caesar." ], [ 439, 533, "vandal", "Vandal kingdom", "colonized", "changed_hands", "vandal", false, false, "Capital of the Vandal kingdom for a century." ], [ 533, 698, "byzantium", "Byzantium (Exarchate of Africa)", "changed_hands", "slain", "byzantium", false, false, "Sacked and destroyed by Umayyad forces in 698." ], [ 698, 700, "umayyad", "Umayyad caliphate", "colonized", "abandoned", "caliphate", false, false, "The cave moves to Tunis; Carthage becomes a quarry." ] ], "basis": "Phoenician foundation from Tyre, 9th century BCE (UNESCO); above the marker by the 7th century [CHECK]." }, { "id": "tyre", "name": "Tyre", "lat": 33.2705, "lon": 35.2038, "kind": "city", "formation": -1000, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 4", "lines": [ 186 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -1000, 10000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -430, 35000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -1000, -539, "phoenicia-tyre", "Tyre (Phoenician city)", "formed", "gathered", "phoenicia", false, false, "Tributary to Assyria and besieged by Babylon, 586 to 573 BCE [CHECK]; never a claw (Ch 4 L224)." ], [ -539, -332, "iran", "Achaemenid Persia", "gathered", "slain", "achaemenid", false, false, "Alexander’s siege of 332 BCE [CHECK]." ], [ -332, -64, "hellenistic", "Macedon and the Hellenistic kingdoms", "colonized", "gathered", "macedon", false, false, "" ], [ -64, 640, "rome", "Rome, then Byzantium", "gathered", "colonized", "rome", false, false, "" ], [ 640, 1124, "caliphate-early", "Caliphates (Rashidun to Fatimid)", "colonized", "colonized", "caliphate", false, false, "" ], [ 1124, 1291, "crusader", "Kingdom of Jerusalem", "colonized", "slain", "crusader", false, false, "Mamluks raze the city; the cave empties below the marker." ], [ 1291, 1516, "mamluk", "Mamluk", "colonized", "gathered", "mamluk", false, false, "" ], [ 1516, 1918, "turkey", "Ottoman", "gathered", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "" ], [ 1920, 1943, "france-mandate", "French Mandate", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-mandate", false, false, "" ], [ 1943, 2026, "lebanon", "Lebanon", "re_emerged", "alive", "lebanon", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Island city of the Phoenician network; above the marker in the Iron Age [CHECK]." }, { "id": "rome", "name": "Rome", "lat": 41.8933, "lon": 12.4829, "kind": "city", "formation": -500, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Italian state" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 35 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 1", "lines": [ 98 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 3", "lines": [ 133, 134, 139, 163 ], "n": 4 }, { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 308, 312 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 8", "lines": [ 348, 356, 359, 370 ], "n": 4 }, { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 452 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 496 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 567, 578, 579, 591, 592 ], "n": 5 }, { "ch": "Ch 13", "lines": [ 606, 617, 656, 663 ], "n": 4 }, { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 727 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 18", "lines": [ 906 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -200, 150000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1, 800000, "modelski2003", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 100, 1000000, "morris2010", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 400, 800000, "modelski2003", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 500, 100000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1000, 25000, "wiki-hucs", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 1300, 40000, "wiki-hucs", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 1500, 38000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1600, 105000, "rome-parish", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1700, 138000, "rome-parish", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1800, 163000, "rome-parish", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1871, 212432, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1901, 422411, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1951, 1651754, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 2001, 2546804, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 2021, 2749031, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 2025, 2376474, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -500, 476, "rome", "Rome", "formed", "scattered", "rome", false, false, "Aqueducts held a million on a hill the Tiber alone could not water (Prologue L35). Sacks of 410 and 455 as events." ], [ 476, 493, "odoacer", "Odoacer", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "" ], [ 493, 536, "ostrogoth", "Ostrogothic kingdom", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "ostrogoth", false, false, "Belisarius enters December 9, 536." ], [ 536, 546, "byzantium", "Byzantium", "colonized", "changed_hands", "byzantium", false, false, "" ], [ 546, 547, "ostrogoth", "Ostrogoths (Totila)", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "ostrogoth", true, false, "" ], [ 547, 550, "byzantium", "Byzantium", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "byzantium", true, false, "Totila’s third siege, 549 to 550." ], [ 550, 552, "ostrogoth", "Ostrogoths (Totila)", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "ostrogoth", true, false, "" ], [ 552, 754, "byzantium", "Byzantium (Duchy of Rome)", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "byzantium", false, false, "The city falls to about 30,000 [CHECK]." ], [ 754, 1798, "papal-states", "Papal States", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "papal", false, false, "Sample date 754; the Donation of Pepin is often dated 756 [CHECK]." ], [ 1798, 1799, "france-republic", "French Roman Republic", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", true, false, "" ], [ 1799, 1809, "papal-states", "Papal States", "re_emerged", "colonized", "papal", false, false, "" ], [ 1809, 1814, "france-republic", "French Empire", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1814, 1870, "papal-states", "Papal States", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "papal", false, false, "Roman Republic of 1849 as an event; French garrison 1849 to 1870 [CHECK] holds the gate for the pope." ], [ 1870, 1943, "italy", "Italy", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "italy", false, false, "" ], [ 1943, 1944, "germany", "Germany", "colonized", "changed_hands", "germany", true, false, "September 1943 to June 4, 1944 [CHECK]." ], [ 1944, 2026, "italy", "Italy", "re_emerged", "alive", "italy", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Servian city of the late kingdom; no compiled figure before Chandler’s 150,000 for 200 BCE (sample)." }, { "id": "constantinople", "name": "Constantinople (Istanbul)", "lat": 41.0082, "lon": 28.9784, "kind": "city", "formation": 100, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Republic of Turkey" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 529, 541 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 559, 561, 562, 564, 568, 572 ], "n": 12 }, { "ch": "Ch 13", "lines": [ 655 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 14", "lines": [ 688 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 775 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 18", "lines": [ 912, 913, 918, 920, 924, 925 ], "n": 6 }, { "ch": "Ch 20", "lines": [ 1018 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 25", "lines": [ 1268 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 361, 300000, "chandlerfox1974", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 500, 400000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 600, 150000, "wiki-hucs", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 800, 125000, "wiki-hucs", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 1000, 300000, "wiki-hucs", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 1200, 200000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1261, 100000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1350, 80000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1453, 45000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1500, 200000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1550, 660000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 1700, 700000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1800, 570000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1890, 874000, "ottoman-census-1885", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1927, 794444, "turkstat", "province", "high" ], [ 1950, 1166477, "turkstat", "province", "high" ], [ 1970, 3019032, "turkstat", "province", "high" ], [ 1990, 7309190, "turkstat", "province", "high" ], [ 2010, 13255685, "turkstat", "province", "high" ], [ 2024, 15701602, "turkstat", "province", "high" ], [ 2025, 15014763, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -657, 73, "byzantion-polis", "Byzantion (Greek city)", "founded", "gathered", null, false, false, "The cave is Greek-carved, not Roman-carved." ], [ 73, 330, "rome", "Rome", "gathered", "changed_hands", "rome", false, false, "Septimius Severus besieges and rebuilds it, 196 CE." ], [ 330, 1204, "byzantium", "Byzantium", "founded", "scattered", "byzantium", false, false, "Refounded as Constantinople: a new dragon moves into an old cave." ], [ 1204, 1261, "latin-empire", "Latin Empire", "colonized", "re_emerged", "crusader", false, false, "" ], [ 1261, 1453, "byzantium", "Byzantium", "re_emerged", "scattered", "byzantium", false, false, "The shrinking cave: about 45,000 by 1453 (sample). The lock’s type specimen for the dragon scattered." ], [ 1453, 1918, "turkey", "Ottoman", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "1478 survey near one hundred thousand (Ch 12 L750)." ], [ 1918, 1923, "allied-1918", "Allied occupation", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "French troops November 12, British November 13, 1918, to October 4, 1923. The sultan still sat in the palace; the Allies held the gate." ], [ 1923, 2026, "turkey", "Republic of Turkey", "re_emerged", "alive", "turkey", false, false, "Capital moves to Ankara in October 1923 [CHECK]: the head cave becomes a nested cave. dragon-stages.json reads this as the same dragon." ] ], "basis": "Chandler and Fox: Byzantium 36,000 at 100 CE (sample). The Greek city was founded from Megara about 657 BCE and probably crossed the marker long before 330 [CHECK]." }, { "id": "baghdad", "name": "Baghdad", "lat": 33.3152, "lon": 44.3661, "kind": "city", "formation": 762, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Iraq" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 23, 24, 27, 29, 31, 47 ], "n": 7 }, { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 255, 256, 272, 296, 303, 308 ], "n": 6 }, { "ch": "Ch 8", "lines": [ 348, 383 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 442, 460, 461 ], "n": 3 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 483 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 581, 593 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 743, 745 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 19", "lines": [ 984 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 22", "lines": [ 1119 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 23", "lines": [ 1173, 1177, 1180 ], "n": 3 }, { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1188, 1193, 1205, 1235 ], "n": 4 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 800, 700000, "chandler1987", "area_estimate", "medium" ], [ 900, 900000, "chandler1987", "area_estimate", "medium" ], [ 1000, 125000, "chandler1987", "area_estimate", "low" ], [ 1200, 250000, "wiki-hucs", "area_estimate", "low" ], [ 1800, 80000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 1900, 145000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1947, 515459, "iraq-cso", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1950, 579000, "wup2018", "agglomeration", "medium" ], [ 1970, 2070000, "wup2018", "agglomeration", "medium" ], [ 1990, 4092000, "wup2018", "agglomeration", "medium" ], [ 2010, 5652000, "wup2018", "agglomeration", "medium" ], [ 2020, 7144000, "wup2018", "agglomeration", "medium" ], [ 2024, 7837463, "iraq-cso", "province", "high" ], [ 2025, 6390735, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 762, 1258, "abbasid", "Abbasid caliphate", "founded", "slain", "caliphate", false, false, "House of Wisdom; the Buyid (945 to 1055) and Seljuk (1055 to 1152) amirs held the sword while the caliph kept the cave (sample dates)." ], [ 945, 1055, "buyid", "Buyid amirs", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "iran", false, false, "Nested gate-holders under the caliph." ], [ 1055, 1152, "seljuk", "Great Seljuk sultans", "changed_hands", "re_emerged", null, false, false, "Nested gate-holders under the caliph." ], [ 1258, 1335, "ilkhanate", "Ilkhanate (Mongol)", "colonized", "collapsed", "mongol", false, false, "Provincial seat, not capital. Abu Sa’id dies 1335." ], [ 1335, 1339, "jalayirid", "Contested succession", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", null, true, false, "Short interregnum." ], [ 1339, 1393, "jalayirid", "Jalayirid sultanate", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", null, false, true, "Hasan Buzurg rules from Baghdad." ], [ 1393, 1394, "timurid", "Timur", "colonized", "changed_hands", "timurid", true, false, "" ], [ 1394, 1401, "jalayirid", "Jalayirid restored", "re_emerged", "slain", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1401, 1405, "timurid", "Timur (the second sack)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "timurid", true, false, "" ], [ 1405, 1411, "jalayirid", "Jalayirid restored", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1411, 1469, "qara-qoyunlu", "Qara Qoyunlu", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "Iranica: held till 1469, first as nominal Timurid vassals." ], [ 1469, 1508, "aq-qoyunlu", "Aq Qoyunlu", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1508, 1534, "iran", "Safavid Iran", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "safavid", false, false, "Dhul Fiqar’s revolt 1523 to 1529 as an event. The sample used a separate safavid id; this file uses dragon-stages iran." ], [ 1534, 1623, "turkey", "Ottoman", "gathered", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "" ], [ 1623, 1638, "iran", "Safavid Iran (Shah Abbas)", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "safavid", false, false, "" ], [ 1638, 1917, "turkey", "Ottoman", "changed_hands", "colonized", "ottoman", false, false, "Mamluk pashas of Iraq, 1704 to 1831 [CHECK], ruled inside the system." ], [ 1917, 1932, "uk", "Britain", "colonized", "re_emerged", "uk-empire", false, false, "Occupation, then mandate; the Kingdom of Iraq from 1921 [CHECK] under British control." ], [ 1932, 1941, "iraq", "Kingdom of Iraq", "re_emerged", "colonized", "iraq", false, false, "" ], [ 1941, 1947, "uk", "Britain (reoccupation)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "uk-empire", false, false, "Anglo-Iraqi War, May 2 to 31, 1941; troops out 1947 [CHECK]. The Iraqi crown stayed; Britain held the gate." ], [ 1947, 2003, "iraq", "Iraq", "re_emerged", "colonized", "iraq", false, false, "" ], [ 2003, 2004, "usa", "US-led coalition (Coalition Provisional Authority)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "usa", true, false, "US forces remain until 2011 [CHECK]." ], [ 2004, 2026, "iraq", "Iraq", "re_emerged", "alive", "iraq", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Founded by al-Mansur in 762; Chandler enters 700,000 by 800 (sample). Iraq CSO 2024 census 7,837,463 (sample)." }, { "id": "cairo", "name": "Cairo (Fustat and al-Qahira)", "lat": 30.0444, "lon": 31.2357, "kind": "city", "formation": 641, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Egypt" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 28 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 8", "lines": [ 332, 379 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 540, 541 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 745, 764, 769 ], "n": 3 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 700, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 800, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 884, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 900, 150000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 969, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 135000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1046, 135000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1100, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 175000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 200000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1250, 300000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 400000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1348, 500000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 350000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 360000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 380000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 400000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 360000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 275000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 200000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1650, 175000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 175000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 175000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1775, 215000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1798, 186000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 186000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1825, 250000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1848, 254000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 260000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1872, 349883, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1875, 355000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 595000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1914, 735000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 1000000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 2750000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1970, 6600000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 7440914, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 8493679, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 9799452, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 11676131, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 13927904, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 15676619, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 17519921, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 19455095, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 21550926, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 24002054, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 25566102, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 641, 868, "caliphate-early", "Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid governors", "founded", "changed_hands", "caliphate", false, false, "" ], [ 868, 969, "caliphate-egypt", "Tulunid, Abbasid again, Ikhshidid", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "caliphate", false, false, "" ], [ 969, 1171, "fatimid", "Fatimid caliphate", "founded", "changed_hands", "fatimid", false, false, "Al-Qahira founded 969 by Jawhar." ], [ 1171, 1250, "ayyubid", "Ayyubid", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "ayyubid", false, false, "" ], [ 1250, 1517, "mamluk", "Mamluk sultanate", "changed_hands", "colonized", "mamluk", false, false, "The Genizah accumulates (Ch 8 L460). The Portuguese steal its river after 1498 (Ch 11 L672 to L673)." ], [ 1517, 1798, "turkey", "Ottoman", "gathered", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "Cairo’s tunnels open into Constantinople’s (Ch 11 L673)." ], [ 1798, 1801, "france-republic", "France (Bonaparte)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", true, false, "" ], [ 1801, 1882, "egypt-khedivate", "Ottoman, then the Muhammad Ali dynasty", "re_emerged", "colonized", "ottoman", false, false, "" ], [ 1882, 1956, "uk", "Britain", "colonized", "changed_hands", "uk-empire", false, false, "Veiled protectorate, protectorate 1914 to 1922 [CHECK], bases until 1956." ], [ 1956, 2026, "egypt", "Egypt", "re_emerged", "alive", "egypt", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Fustat founded about 641 as the first Arab capital; about 120,000 by 800 [CHECK]. Al-Qahira founded 969." }, { "id": "damascus", "name": "Damascus", "lat": 33.5138, "lon": 36.2765, "kind": "city", "formation": -1000, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 540 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 745, 748 ], "n": 2 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -430, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 361, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 500, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 622, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 700, 300000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 705, 300000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 715, 300000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 800, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 57000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1170, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1250, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 64000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 74000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 74000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 65000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1525, 57000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1650, 65000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 70000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1785, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1810, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1825, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 108599, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 165000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 335000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 1202544, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 1479781, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 1810688, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 2058402, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 2303450, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 2527484, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 2865770, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 3343827, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 3263826, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 3446833, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 4287746, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -1000, -732, "aram", "Aram-Damascus", "formed", "gathered", null, false, false, "" ], [ -732, 634, "later-mesopotamian", "Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Macedon, Rome, Byzantium", "gathered", "colonized", "rome", false, false, "Sixteen centuries of outside systems, compressed here; Sasanian occupation 613 to 628 [CHECK]." ], [ 634, 661, "caliphate-early", "Rashidun caliphate", "colonized", "changed_hands", "caliphate", false, false, "" ], [ 661, 750, "umayyad", "Umayyad caliphate (capital)", "changed_hands", "slain", "caliphate", false, false, "The Great Mosque (UNESCO)." ], [ 750, 1076, "caliphate-egypt", "Abbasid, Tulunid, Ikhshidid, Fatimid", "gathered", "changed_hands", "caliphate", false, false, "" ], [ 1076, 1174, "damascus-local", "Seljuk, Burid and Zengid rulers", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1174, 1260, "ayyubid", "Ayyubid", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "ayyubid", false, false, "" ], [ 1260, 1260, "mongol", "Mongols", "colonized", "changed_hands", "mongol", true, false, "March to September 1260 [CHECK]." ], [ 1260, 1516, "mamluk", "Mamluk", "changed_hands", "colonized", "mamluk", false, false, "Timur sacks the city, 1401 (event). Madrasa networks (Ch 11 L672)." ], [ 1516, 1832, "turkey", "Ottoman", "gathered", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "" ], [ 1832, 1840, "egypt-khedivate", "Egypt (Ibrahim Pasha)", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, true, false, "" ], [ 1840, 1918, "turkey", "Ottoman", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "" ], [ 1918, 1920, "arab-kingdom", "Arab Kingdom of Syria (Faisal)", "re_emerged", "colonized", null, true, false, "" ], [ 1920, 1946, "france-mandate", "French Mandate", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-mandate", false, false, "" ], [ 1946, 2026, "syria", "Syria", "re_emerged", "alive", "syria", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Continuously inhabited since the 3rd millennium BCE (UNESCO); Aramean capital above the marker by the Iron Age [CHECK]." }, { "id": "tripoli", "name": "Tripoli (Libya)", "lat": 32.8872, "lon": 13.1913, "kind": "city", "formation": 1500, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 510, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516 ], "n": 7 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1307, 10000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1510, 16000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1557, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 15000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1673, 20000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1768, 16000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1784, 14000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 20000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1803, 13500, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1815, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1821, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1911, 29761, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 512268, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 582508, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 569533, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 619463, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 677308, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 811523, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 956154, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 1047431, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 1155590, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 1173125, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 1239823, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 643, 1146, "caliphate-early", "Caliphal and local rulers", "colonized", "colonized", "caliphate", false, false, "" ], [ 1146, 1158, "normans-sicily", "Norman Kingdom of Sicily", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, true, false, "" ], [ 1158, 1510, "hafsid-local", "Almohad, Hafsid and local rulers", "changed_hands", "colonized", "almohad", false, false, "" ], [ 1510, 1530, "spain", "Spain", "colonized", "changed_hands", "spain", false, false, "Britannica: captured by Ferdinand the Catholic in 1510." ], [ 1530, 1551, "knights-st-john", "Knights of St John", "changed_hands", "colonized", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1551, 1711, "turkey", "Ottoman (pashas and janissaries)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "ottoman", false, false, "" ], [ 1711, 1835, "karamanli", "Karamanli pashas", "changed_hands", "gathered", "ottoman", false, false, "Yusuf Karamanli’s war with the United States, 1801 to 1805 (Ch 11 L642 to L649)." ], [ 1835, 1911, "turkey", "Ottoman direct rule", "gathered", "colonized", "ottoman", false, false, "" ], [ 1911, 1943, "italy", "Italy", "colonized", "changed_hands", "italy", false, false, "" ], [ 1943, 1951, "uk", "Britain (military administration)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "uk-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1951, 2026, "libya", "Libya", "re_emerged", "alive", "libya", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Phoenician Oea; the modern cluster above the marker by the early modern period [CHECK]." }, { "id": "toledo", "name": "Toledo", "lat": 39.8628, "lon": -4.0273, "kind": "city", "formation": 700, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Spanish system (Castile and the empire)" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 460, 461 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 536 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 593, 594 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 13", "lines": [ 654, 657 ], "n": 2 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 800, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 31000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 32000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 33000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 34000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 35000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1530, 35000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 55000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1571, 74000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 72000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1594, 65000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 57000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1630, 20000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1646, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1694, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 22000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1787, 21000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 18000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1845, 13431, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 567, 711, "visigoth", "Visigothic kingdom (capital)", "changed_hands", "colonized", "visigoth", false, false, "" ], [ 711, 1035, "al-andalus", "Umayyad al-Andalus", "colonized", "collapsed", "al-andalus", false, false, "A fortress of the Emirate of Cordoba (UNESCO)." ], [ 1035, 1085, "taifa", "Taifa of Toledo", "re_emerged", "colonized", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1085, 2026, "spain", "Castile, then Spain", "colonized", "alive", "spain", false, false, "Alfonso VI takes the city, May 1085. The libraries were found intact; the translators turn Arabic into Latin (Ch 12 L755). Court moves to Madrid 1561 [CHECK]." ] ], "basis": "Visigothic capital; above the marker under the emirate [CHECK]." }, { "id": "cordoba", "name": "Cordoba", "lat": 37.8882, "lon": -4.7794, "kind": "city", "formation": -100, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Spanish system (Castile and the empire)" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 593, 595 ], "n": 2 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 800, 160000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 900, 20000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 450000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1100, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1103, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 36000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1408, 36000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1530, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1594, 32000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 32000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1646, 34000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1694, 27000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 27000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 22000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1787, 28000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 28000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1849, 34000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 34000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1857, 31000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 52000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1910, 55514, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 207164, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 225115, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 238442, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 247128, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 238434, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 231722, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 230358, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 229795, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 231852, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 241817, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 241778, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -152, 411, "rome", "Rome", "founded", "collapsed", "rome", false, false, "" ], [ 411, 711, "visigoth", "Visigoths and Byzantine Spania", "changed_hands", "colonized", "visigoth", false, false, "" ], [ 711, 1031, "al-andalus", "Umayyad al-Andalus (emirate 756, caliphate 929)", "colonized", "scattered", "al-andalus", false, false, "The libraries of Cordoba; dispersed in the fitna of 1009 to 1031 [CHECK], and the texts had already reached Toledo and Paris (Ch 12 L757)." ], [ 1031, 1091, "taifa", "Taifa rulers", "re_emerged", "colonized", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1091, 1148, "almoravid", "Almoravid", "colonized", "changed_hands", "almoravid", false, false, "" ], [ 1148, 1236, "almohad", "Almohad", "changed_hands", "colonized", "almohad", false, false, "" ], [ 1236, 2026, "spain", "Castile, then Spain", "colonized", "alive", "spain", false, false, "Ferdinand III." ] ], "basis": "Roman Corduba; under the caliphate one of the largest cities in Europe [CHECK]." }, { "id": "lisbon", "name": "Lisbon", "lat": 38.7223, "lon": -9.1393, "kind": "city", "formation": 1200, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 498, 540, 541 ], "n": 3 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 700, 15000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 800, 15000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 15000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1147, 15000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 15000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 35000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 55000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1430, 64000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 55000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1527, 58860, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 62000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1551, 62500, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 85000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1620, 113265, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1626, 126000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1639, 165000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1650, 170000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 188000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1729, 200000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 213000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1758, 208000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 237000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1825, 258000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1841, 241500, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 262000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1855, 275286, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1875, 243000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 363000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1914, 455000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 567000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 875000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 1278418, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 1501517, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 1540507, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 1545566, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 1629942, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 1669925, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 1707651, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 1740610, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 1787605, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 1861574, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 1913798, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -138, 409, "rome", "Rome", "gathered", "collapsed", "rome", false, false, "" ], [ 409, 714, "visigoth", "Suebi, then Visigoths", "changed_hands", "colonized", "visigoth", false, false, "" ], [ 714, 1147, "al-andalus", "Umayyad al-Andalus and successors", "colonized", "colonized", "al-andalus", false, false, "" ], [ 1147, 1580, "portugal", "Portugal", "colonized", "gathered", "portugal", false, false, "Siege of June to October 1147. Lisbon receives the stolen river after 1498 (Ch 11 L672 to L673)." ], [ 1580, 1640, "spain", "Spanish Habsburgs (Iberian Union)", "gathered", "re_emerged", "spain", false, false, "" ], [ 1640, 1807, "portugal", "Portugal", "re_emerged", "colonized", "portugal", false, false, "The 1755 earthquake as an event." ], [ 1807, 1808, "france-republic", "France (Junot)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", true, false, "" ], [ 1808, 2026, "portugal", "Portugal", "re_emerged", "alive", "portugal", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Moorish al-Ushbuna; above the marker by the later middle ages [CHECK]." }, { "id": "florence", "name": "Florence", "lat": 43.7696, "lon": 11.2558, "kind": "city", "formation": 1000, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Italian state" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 38 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 8", "lines": [ 344 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 442, 460 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 562, 563, 568, 570, 571, 572 ], "n": 10 }, { "ch": "Ch 13", "lines": [ 662 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1200, 50000, "Wikipedia", "walled_city", "low" ], [ 1338, 95000, "villani1338", "walled_city", "medium" ], [ 1400, 61000, "chandler1987", "walled_city", "medium" ], [ 1427, 37144, "herlihy1985", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1500, 70000, "chandler1987", "walled_city", "medium" ], [ 1575, 59216, "tuscan-census-1552", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1650, 70000, "Wikipedia", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 1861, 150864, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1901, 236635, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1951, 374625, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1971, 457803, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 2021, 361619, "istat", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 2025, 430806, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1115, 1532, "florence", "Florentine commune and republic", "formed", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "No system on purpose: a competing un-eaten cave (lock). Medici 1434 to 1494 and 1512 to 1527; republic restored 1494 and 1527 (sample)." ], [ 1532, 1737, "tuscany", "Medici dukes, then grand dukes", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "tuscany", false, false, "" ], [ 1737, 1799, "tuscany-lorraine", "Habsburg-Lorraine", "changed_hands", "colonized", "austria", false, false, "" ], [ 1799, 1814, "france-republic", "France (occupation, Kingdom of Etruria, French Empire)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1814, 1859, "tuscany-lorraine", "Habsburg-Lorraine restored", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "austria", false, false, "" ], [ 1860, 1943, "italy", "Italy", "gathered", "changed_hands", "italy", false, false, "Sample dates Italy from 1861; the Tuscan plebiscite was March 1860 [CHECK]. Capital of Italy 1865 to 1871 [CHECK]." ], [ 1943, 1944, "germany", "Germany", "colonized", "changed_hands", "germany", true, false, "" ], [ 1944, 2026, "italy", "Italy", "re_emerged", "alive", "italy", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "13,000 at 1000 and 20,000 at 1100 (sample, wiki-hucs); Villani’s 90,000 mouths about 1338." }, { "id": "venice", "name": "Venice", "lat": 45.4408, "lon": 12.3155, "kind": "city", "formation": 900, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Italian state" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 460, 461 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 540, 542 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 564, 578, 579, 582, 589 ], "n": 5 }, { "ch": "Ch 13", "lines": [ 655, 657 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 20", "lines": [ 1019 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 906, 37500, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1100, 55000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1170, 64000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 70000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1250, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 110000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1347, 110000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 85000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1379, 110000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 110000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 115000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1509, 115000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 171000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1563, 182000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 157000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1593, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 151000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1624, 156000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1650, 134000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1696, 143000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 144000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 158000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1761, 161000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1790, 148000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 146000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1802, 146000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1825, 99000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 141000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 171000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 226000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 354000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 697, 1797, "venice-republic", "Republic of Venice", "formed", "colonized", "venice", false, false, "Double-entry Venice (Ch 10 L582); the printing edge (Ch 13 L817). Starved slowly when the Portuguese rerouted the spice trade (Ch 11 L674). Dissolved May 12, 1797." ], [ 1797, 1798, "france-republic", "France (Bonaparte)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", true, false, "Handed to Austria at Campo Formio." ], [ 1798, 1805, "austria", "Austria", "colonized", "changed_hands", "austria", false, false, "" ], [ 1805, 1814, "france-republic", "Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1814, 1848, "austria", "Austria", "colonized", "changed_hands", "austria", false, false, "" ], [ 1848, 1849, "san-marco", "Republic of San Marco", "re_emerged", "colonized", null, true, false, "Seventeen months." ], [ 1849, 1866, "austria", "Austria", "colonized", "changed_hands", "austria", false, false, "" ], [ 1866, 2026, "italy", "Italy", "gathered", "alive", "italy", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "A lagoon refuge from the 5th century (UNESCO); a major maritime power by the 10th [CHECK]." }, { "id": "paris", "name": "Paris", "lat": 48.8566, "lon": 2.3522, "kind": "city", "formation": 1000, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 444 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 570, 593, 595 ], "n": 3 }, { "ch": "Ch 13", "lines": [ 605, 648, 651, 659, 665 ], "n": 5 }, { "ch": "Ch 23", "lines": [ 1153 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1000, 20000, "wiki-hucs", "walled_city", "low" ], [ 1200, 110000, "chandler1987", "walled_city", "low" ], [ 1300, 228000, "chandler1987", "walled_city", "low" ], [ 1400, 275000, "chandler1987", "walled_city", "low" ], [ 1500, 185000, "chandler1987", "walled_city", "low" ], [ 1600, 245000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1700, 510000, "devries1984", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1789, 530000, "INSEE-table", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1801, 546856, "insee", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1851, 1053262, "insee", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1901, 2714068, "insee", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1921, 4850000, "insee", "agglomeration", "medium" ], [ 1954, 6436296, "insee", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1975, 9030876, "insee", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1999, 9727177, "insee", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2023, 11013774, "insee", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 9381921, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 987, 1420, "france", "Capetian France", "formed", "colonized", "france-empire", false, false, "The university from about 1150 (sample)." ], [ 1420, 1436, "uk", "England and Burgundy (Treaty of Troyes)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "uk-empire", false, false, "Lancastrian Paris." ], [ 1436, 1789, "france", "Valois and Bourbon France", "re_emerged", "overflowed", "france-empire", false, false, "Clenching from 1604 (sample). 1789 is the lock’s type specimen for the cave overflowed." ], [ 1789, 1814, "france-republic", "France after 1789", "overflowed", "colonized", "france-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1814, 1815, "coalition-1814", "Coalition occupations", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, true, false, "" ], [ 1815, 1871, "france-republic", "France (restoration, empire, republic)", "re_emerged", "overflowed", "france-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1871, 1871, "commune-1871", "Paris Commune", "overflowed", "slain", null, true, false, "March 18 to May 28, 1871 [CHECK]." ], [ 1871, 1940, "france-republic", "Third Republic", "re_emerged", "colonized", "france-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1940, 1944, "germany", "Germany", "colonized", "changed_hands", "germany", false, false, "June 14, 1940 to August 25, 1944." ], [ 1944, 2026, "france-republic", "France", "re_emerged", "alive", "france-empire", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "20,000 at 1000 (sample, wiki-hucs); Roman Lutetia stayed below the marker." }, { "id": "london", "name": "London", "lat": 51.5074, "lon": -0.1278, "kind": "city", "formation": 1100, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "United Kingdom" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 4", "lines": [ 173 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 444 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 721, 722, 723 ], "n": 3 }, { "ch": "Ch 16", "lines": [ 813 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1228 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 100, 45000, "wiki-hucs", "walled_city", "low" ], [ 1100, 15000, "wiki-hucs", "walled_city", "low" ], [ 1200, 40000, "wiki-hucs", "walled_city", "low" ], [ 1400, 45000, "chandler1987", "walled_city", "medium" ], [ 1500, 40000, "devries1984", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1600, 200000, "devries1984", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1700, 575000, "devries1984", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1801, 1011157, "ons", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1851, 2286609, "ons", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1901, 6226494, "ons", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1939, 8615245, "gla1939", "agglomeration", "medium" ], [ 1951, 8164416, "ons", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1981, 6608513, "ons", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2011, 8173941, "ons", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2021, 8799800, "ons", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 10416420, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 47, 410, "rome", "Rome (Londinium)", "founded", "abandoned", "rome", false, false, "Boudica burns it, 60 or 61 CE [CHECK]. The sample stages the local dragon young, -50 to 410." ], [ 410, 886, null, "No gate-holder large enough: Lundenwic below the marker", "abandoned", "gathered", null, false, false, "Mercian, then Viking, holders of a trading beach. Viking occupation 871 to 886 [CHECK]." ], [ 886, 1016, "uk", "Wessex (Alfred)", "gathered", "colonized", "uk-empire", false, false, "Alfred saves enough (Ch 21, Alfred passage)." ], [ 1016, 1042, "uk", "Cnut and the Danish crown", "colonized", "changed_hands", "uk-empire", false, true, "Same dragon, new rider." ], [ 1042, 1066, "uk", "House of Wessex restored", "re_emerged", "colonized", "uk-empire", false, true, "" ], [ 1066, 2026, "uk", "Normans, then every later English and British crown", "colonized", "alive", "uk-empire", false, true, "Same dragon, new rider. Wise elder by statute, 1854 (Prologue L42)." ] ], "basis": "Roman Londinium crossed the marker about 100 CE and fell below after 410; the medieval city re-crossed about 1100 (sample)." }, { "id": "kyiv", "name": "Kyiv", "lat": 50.4501, "lon": 30.5234, "kind": "city", "formation": 1000, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Ukraine" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 21", "lines": [ 1063 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1000, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1015, 48000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1050, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1100, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1622, 10500, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1727, 11000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1742, 20000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 22000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1766, 28877, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1782, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1797, 19081, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 19000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1811, 23000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1845, 50157, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 52000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1856, 55590, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 300000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1914, 625000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 463000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 800000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 1934717, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 2199611, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 2399585, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 2566122, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 2568986, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 2564591, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 2633931, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 2747984, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 2820427, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 2897371, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 2614581, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 882, 1240, "kyivan-rus", "Kyivan Rus", "gathered", "colonized", "kyivan-rus", false, false, "Scriptoria and the Primary Chronicle. Ch 21 L1253 scores it cave colonized, the same line as Cajamarca." ], [ 1240, 1362, "golden-horde", "Golden Horde", "colonized", "changed_hands", "golden-horde", false, false, "December 1240. What sat down in the cave was not another adult (Ch 21 L1253)." ], [ 1362, 1569, "lithuania", "Grand Duchy of Lithuania", "colonized", "gathered", "lithuania", false, false, "" ], [ 1569, 1648, "poland-lithuania", "Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth", "gathered", "changed_hands", "poland-lithuania", false, false, "" ], [ 1648, 1667, "hetmanate", "Cossack Hetmanate", "re_emerged", "gathered", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1667, 1917, "russia", "Muscovy, then the Russian Empire", "gathered", "collapsed", "russia", false, false, "Andrusovo 1667, the Eternal Peace 1686 [CHECK]." ], [ 1917, 1918, "unr", "Central Rada (Ukrainian People’s Republic)", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", null, true, false, "" ], [ 1918, 1918, "bolshevik", "Bolsheviks", "colonized", "changed_hands", "russia", true, false, "February to March 1918 [CHECK]." ], [ 1918, 1918, "unr", "UNR, then the German-backed Hetmanate", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "germany", true, false, "March to December 18, 1918." ], [ 1918, 1919, "unr", "Directorate (UNR)", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", null, true, true, "December 18, 1918 to February 5, 1919." ], [ 1919, 1919, "bolshevik", "Bolsheviks", "colonized", "changed_hands", "russia", true, false, "February 5 to August 30, 1919." ], [ 1919, 1919, "whites", "Denikin’s Whites (with a one-day UNR entry)", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, true, false, "August 31 to December 1919 [CHECK]." ], [ 1919, 1920, "bolshevik", "Bolsheviks", "colonized", "changed_hands", "russia", true, false, "" ], [ 1920, 1920, "poland", "Poland with the UNR", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, true, false, "May to June 1920 [CHECK]." ], [ 1920, 1941, "russia", "Soviet Union", "colonized", "colonized", "russia", false, false, "" ], [ 1941, 1943, "germany", "Germany", "colonized", "changed_hands", "germany", false, false, "September 19, 1941 to November 6, 1943." ], [ 1943, 1991, "russia", "Soviet Union", "re_emerged", "collapsed", "russia", false, false, "" ], [ 1991, 2026, "ukraine", "Ukraine", "re_emerged", "alive", "ukraine", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Capital of Rus; tens of thousands by the 12th century [CHECK]. Fewer than two hundred houses in 1246 (Carpini, Ch 21 L1256): below the marker until the early modern period [CHECK]." }, { "id": "timbuktu", "name": "Timbuktu", "lat": 16.7666, "lon": -3.0026, "kind": "city", "formation": 1400, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 308 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 503 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 596 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1300, 10000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 20000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1828, 12000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 13000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1100, 1325, "tuareg", "Tuareg town", "formed", "gathered", null, false, false, "UNESCO dates the founding to the 5th century; most sources give about 1100 [CHECK]." ], [ 1325, 1433, "mali", "Mali Empire", "gathered", "changed_hands", "mali", false, false, "" ], [ 1433, 1468, "tuareg", "Tuareg", "changed_hands", "gathered", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1468, 1591, "songhai", "Songhai", "gathered", "colonized", "songhai", false, false, "Sankore as a university that predated Oxford; an adult dragon by every condition (Ch 11 L635)." ], [ 1591, 1826, "saadi", "Saadi Morocco, then the Arma pashas", "colonized", "changed_hands", "saadi", false, false, "Timbuktu made the Moroccan capital in the Sudan; scholars deported to Marrakesh in 1593 [CHECK]: a scattering." ], [ 1826, 1863, "massina", "Massina caliphate", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1863, 1894, "toucouleur", "Toucouleur, then Tuareg and Kunta", "changed_hands", "colonized", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1894, 1960, "france-republic", "France", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1960, 2012, "mali-republic", "Republic of Mali", "re_emerged", "colonized", "mali-republic", false, false, "" ], [ 2012, 2013, "jihadist-2012", "Ansar Dine and AQIM", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, true, false, "Manuscripts smuggled out in footlockers (Ch 13 L758)." ], [ 2013, 2026, "mali-republic", "Republic of Mali", "re_emerged", "alive", "mali-republic", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Estimates for the 15th and 16th century peak run from about 25,000 to 100,000 (World History Encyclopedia claims 100,000; low confidence) [CHECK]." }, { "id": "tenochtitlan", "name": "Tenochtitlan (Mexico City)", "lat": 19.4326, "lon": -99.1332, "kind": "city", "formation": 1400, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Mexico" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 261, 262, 263, 269, 275, 276 ], "n": 6 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 523 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1500, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1520, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1524, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 55000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 58500, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1625, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1634, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1681, 75000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 85000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1742, 98000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 102000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1772, 120000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1790, 120000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 128000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1803, 132000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1825, 165000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1828, 165000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 170000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1856, 185000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1875, 250000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 368000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1914, 600000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 772000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 2872000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1970, 9000000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 11119402, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 13216145, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 14354636, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 15602020, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 16617208, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 17598162, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 17873392, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 18329145, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 18955463, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 17610488, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 17734212, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1325, 1521, "mexica", "Mexica, then the Triple Alliance", "founded", "colonized", "triple-alliance", false, false, "Triple Alliance 1428 [CHECK]. Fell August 13, 1521; the codex painters replaced by catechism teachers (Ch 7 L316)." ], [ 1521, 1821, "spain", "Spain (New Spain)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "spain", false, false, "Built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan (UNESCO)." ], [ 1821, 1847, "mexico", "Mexico", "re_emerged", "colonized", "mexico", false, false, "" ], [ 1847, 1848, "usa", "United States Army", "colonized", "changed_hands", "usa", true, false, "September 14, 1847; the first foreign capital occupied by US forces (UTA)." ], [ 1848, 1863, "mexico", "Mexico", "re_emerged", "colonized", "mexico", false, false, "" ], [ 1863, 1867, "france-republic", "France (Second Mexican Empire)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "france-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1867, 2026, "mexico", "Mexico", "re_emerged", "alive", "mexico", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Founded 1325; about two hundred thousand at contact (Ch 7 L315) [CHECK]." }, { "id": "cuzco", "name": "Cuzco", "lat": -13.5319, "lon": -71.9675, "kind": "city", "formation": 1450, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Peru" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 272 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 523 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1438, 24000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1533, 35000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1555, 21000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 24000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1615, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1785, 26000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1794, 32082, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 34000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1826, 46123, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 41152, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 130887, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 164341, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 209894, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 243162, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 272593, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 307982, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 340927, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 376637, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 424578, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 471743, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 490968, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1200, 1438, "inca", "Inca kingdom of Cuzco", "formed", "gathered", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1438, 1533, "inca", "Tawantinsuyu", "gathered", "colonized", "inca", false, true, "Every valley cave from Quito to Cuzco connected to one throat (Ch 7 L326). Spanish entry November 15, 1533." ], [ 1533, 1824, "spain", "Spain (Viceroyalty of Peru)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "spain", false, false, "Manco Inca’s siege, 1536 [CHECK], as an event. Last royalist capital under La Serna, 1821 to 1824." ], [ 1824, 2026, "peru", "Peru", "re_emerged", "alive", "peru", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Inca capital; estimates run from about 40,000 to well over 100,000 [CHECK]." }, { "id": "quito", "name": "Quito", "lat": -0.1807, "lon": -78.4678, "kind": "city", "formation": 1600, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Ecuador" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 272 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1300, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 20000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1538, 23000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1574, 15000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 20000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1650, 31500, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1744, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1779, 24919, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1780, 28451, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 36000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1857, 36075, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 209000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 637094, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 808568, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 1016878, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 1296317, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 1471229, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 1654205, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 1849167, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 2048089, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 2228146, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 2429432, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 2534914, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1000, 1462, "quitu", "Quitu and Cara polities", "formed", "gathered", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1462, 1534, "inca", "Tawantinsuyu", "gathered", "colonized", "inca", false, false, "Burned by Rumiñahui before the Spanish arrived [CHECK]." ], [ 1534, 1822, "spain", "Spain", "colonized", "changed_hands", "spain", false, false, "San Francisco de Quito founded December 6, 1534 [CHECK]." ], [ 1822, 1830, "gran-colombia", "Gran Colombia", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "gran-colombia", false, false, "" ], [ 1830, 2026, "ecuador", "Ecuador", "re_emerged", "alive", "ecuador", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Inca northern capital; the colonial city above the marker by about 1600 [CHECK]." }, { "id": "cajamarca", "name": "Cajamarca", "lat": -7.1638, "lon": -78.5003, "kind": "city", "formation": null, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": true, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Peru" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 47 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 6", "lines": [ 249 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 256, 261, 269, 270, 271, 272 ], "n": 7 }, { "ch": "Ch 12", "lines": [ 579 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 13", "lines": [ 657 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 21", "lines": [ 1060 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1532, 5000, "book", "area_estimate", "low" ], [ 1980, 55710, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 62399, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 68862, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 88305, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 111477, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 142535, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 173359, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 212599, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 248153, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 258440, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1000, 1465, "caxamarca", "Caxamarca polity", "formed", "gathered", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1465, 1532, "inca", "Tawantinsuyu", "gathered", "colonized", "inca", false, false, "Pizarro takes Atahualpa in the plaza, November 1532 [CHECK]." ], [ 1532, 1821, "spain", "Spain", "colonized", "changed_hands", "spain", false, false, "" ], [ 1821, 2026, "peru", "Peru", "re_emerged", "alive", "peru", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Below the marker in 1532: a provincial Inca center [CHECK]. The book’s cave colonized was the whole Tawantinsuyu system; Cajamarca was its throat (Ch 7 L326)." }, { "id": "delhi", "name": "Delhi", "lat": 28.6562, "lon": 77.241, "kind": "city", "formation": 1200, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Indian system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 442 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 745 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1052, 10000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1193, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1250, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1327, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 125000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1354, 125000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1375, 1250000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1398, 125000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1526, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1530, 130000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1596, 8000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1666, 400000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1681, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1707, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1739, 180000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1781, 190000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 140000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1820, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1825, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1836, 151000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1846, 160279, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 156000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1853, 152406, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 207000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 375000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 1306000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1970, 4300000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 6091891, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 7392606, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 9166234, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 11580745, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 14496458, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 17969092, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 20652915, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 23240763, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 26122475, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 29101252, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 30222405, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1052, 1192, "india", "Tomara and Chahamana Rajputs", "formed", "colonized", "india", false, false, "" ], [ 1192, 1206, "ghurid", "Ghurid", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1206, 1398, "india", "Delhi Sultanate (Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq)", "changed_hands", "slain", "india", false, false, "Same dragon, new rider." ], [ 1398, 1399, "timurid", "Timur", "colonized", "abandoned", "timurid", true, false, "The sack of 1398." ], [ 1399, 1526, "india", "Tughlaq remnant, Sayyid (1414), Lodi", "re_emerged", "colonized", "india", false, false, "" ], [ 1526, 1540, "india", "Mughal (Babur, Humayun)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "india", false, true, "Panipat, 1526." ], [ 1540, 1555, "india", "Sur (Sher Shah)", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "india", false, true, "" ], [ 1555, 1739, "india", "Mughal restored", "re_emerged", "slain", "india", false, true, "" ], [ 1739, 1739, "iran", "Nader Shah", "colonized", "abandoned", "iran", true, false, "The sack of 1739; the Peacock Throne carried off." ], [ 1739, 1803, "india", "Mughal under Maratha protection", "re_emerged", "colonized", "india", false, false, "" ], [ 1803, 1857, "uk", "Britain", "colonized", "changed_hands", "uk-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1857, 1857, "rebels-1857", "Rebel government of 1857", "overflowed", "slain", null, true, false, "May to September 1857 [CHECK]." ], [ 1857, 1947, "uk", "Britain", "re_emerged", "tail_spat_out", "uk-empire", false, false, "New Delhi capital of British India from 1911 [CHECK]. Britain’s exit scored here as the tail spat out: withdrawal, not defeat." ], [ 1947, 2026, "india", "Republic of India", "re_emerged", "alive", "india", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Capital of the Delhi Sultanate from 1206 [CHECK]; the book names it once as a node of the competing madrasa market (Ch 15 L917)." }, { "id": "calicut", "name": "Calicut (Kozhikode)", "lat": 11.2588, "lon": 75.7804, "kind": "city", "formation": 1400, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Kerala (state cave inside India)", "Indian system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 436 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 11", "lines": [ 476, 477 ], "n": 2 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1350, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 46000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 42000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1503, 41000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1599, 42000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 42000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1606, 42000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1820, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 38000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1871, 48338, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 75000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 566962, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 697394, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 1055446, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 1429729, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 1860433, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 2317498, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 2770266, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 2826992, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 3874719, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 5869528, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 6123872, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1300, 1766, "india", "Zamorin of Calicut", "formed", "colonized", "india", false, false, "Da Gama lands in 1498 (Ch 10 L547). The Kerala school of mathematics works inside this cave." ], [ 1766, 1792, "mysore", "Mysore (Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan)", "colonized", "colonized", "mysore", false, false, "" ], [ 1792, 1947, "uk", "Britain", "colonized", "tail_spat_out", "uk-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1947, 2026, "india", "Republic of India (Kerala from 1956)", "re_emerged", "alive", "india", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "The Zamorin’s port; above the marker by the 15th century [CHECK]." }, { "id": "kochi", "name": "Kochi (Cochin)", "lat": 9.9312, "lon": 76.2673, "kind": "city", "formation": 1600, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Kerala (state cave inside India)", "Indian system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 10", "lines": [ 452, 463 ], "n": 2 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1440, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 33000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1503, 33000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 56000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1640, 56000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1810, 12982, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1871, 13588, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 1576753, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 1902001, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 2309723, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 2853499, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 3141618, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 3393587, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 3656437, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 3679405, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 4123840, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 4853712, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 5077670, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1405, 1503, "india", "Kingdom of Cochin", "formed", "colonized", "india", false, false, "The raja keeps Mattancherry throughout; what changes is who holds the fort and the harbor gate." ], [ 1503, 1663, "portugal", "Portugal (Fort Manuel)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "portugal", false, false, "The Jesuit college the Kerala mathematicians never reached (Ch 10 L573, L584)." ], [ 1663, 1795, "netherlands", "Dutch East India Company", "colonized", "changed_hands", "netherlands", false, false, "Garrison capitulates January 8, 1663." ], [ 1795, 1947, "uk", "Britain", "colonized", "tail_spat_out", "uk-empire", false, false, "Occupied 1795; ceded formally 1814 (World History Encyclopedia gives 1814) [CHECK]." ], [ 1947, 2026, "india", "Republic of India (Kerala from 1956)", "re_emerged", "alive", "india", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Port city above the marker in the Portuguese period [CHECK]." }, { "id": "samarkand", "name": "Samarkand", "lat": 39.6542, "lon": 66.9597, "kind": "city", "formation": -500, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Uzbekistan" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 745 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -712, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -400, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -300, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 622, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 800, 75000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 900, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 980, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 75000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1050, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1100, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1220, 106000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1221, 26000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 130000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1405, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 75000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1497, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1510, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1834, 8000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1870, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 58000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 352284, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 409424, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 453031, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 488672, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 579560, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 632508, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 692107, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 735584, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 787535, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 838678, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 932219, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ -545, -329, "iran", "Achaemenid Sogdiana", "gathered", "colonized", "achaemenid", false, false, "" ], [ -329, 712, "macedon", "Macedon and the Hellenistic and Kushan-era holders", "colonized", "colonized", "macedon", false, false, "Compressed." ], [ 712, 819, "umayyad", "Umayyad, then Abbasid caliphate", "colonized", "changed_hands", "caliphate", false, false, "" ], [ 819, 999, "samanid", "Samanid", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "iran", false, false, "" ], [ 999, 1212, "karakhanid", "Karakhanid", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1212, 1220, "khwarazm", "Khwarazmian", "changed_hands", "slain", null, false, false, "" ], [ 1220, 1370, "mongol", "Mongols (Chagatai ulus)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "mongol", false, false, "The cave is gutted and rebuilt beside the old site [CHECK]." ], [ 1370, 1500, "timurid", "Timurid (capital)", "changed_hands", "colonized", "timurid", false, false, "Ulugh Beg’s observatory, 1420s [CHECK]." ], [ 1500, 1868, "bukhara", "Shaybanid Uzbeks, then the Emirate of Bukhara", "colonized", "colonized", "bukhara", false, false, "" ], [ 1868, 1991, "russia", "Russian Empire, then the Soviet Union", "colonized", "collapsed", "russia", false, false, "" ], [ 1991, 2026, "uzbekistan", "Uzbekistan", "re_emerged", "alive", "uzbekistan", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Founded in the 7th century BCE as Afrasiab (UNESCO); Maracanda above the marker under the Achaemenids [CHECK]." }, { "id": "isfahan", "name": "Isfahan", "lat": 32.6546, "lon": 51.668, "kind": "city", "formation": 900, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Iranian system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 15", "lines": [ 745 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 800, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 903, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 75000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 70000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1250, 70000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 62000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1320, 62000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 70000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1387, 70000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1474, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1598, 40000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1599, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1628, 325000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1650, 350000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1673, 360000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 350000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1744, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 45000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1797, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1811, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 67000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1869, 76000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1882, 73654, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 204000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 400356, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 482139, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 696398, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 898564, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 1014829, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 1142523, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 1331963, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 1490918, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 1633061, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 1733460, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 1844409, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 935, 1194, "iran", "Buyid, then Seljuk (capital)", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "iran", false, false, "Same dragon, new riders." ], [ 1194, 1335, "mongol", "Khwarazmian, then Mongol and Ilkhanid", "colonized", "collapsed", "mongol", false, false, "" ], [ 1335, 1387, "iran", "Injuid and Muzaffarid", "re_emerged", "slain", "iran", false, false, "" ], [ 1387, 1503, "timurid", "Timur, then Timurid and Turkmen holders", "colonized", "changed_hands", "timurid", false, false, "The massacre of 1387." ], [ 1503, 1722, "iran", "Safavid (capital from 1598)", "changed_hands", "slain", "safavid", false, false, "Meidan Emam (UNESCO). Capital 1598 [CHECK]." ], [ 1722, 1729, "hotaki", "Hotaki Afghans", "colonized", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "Six-month siege, March to October 1722." ], [ 1729, 2026, "iran", "Afsharid, Zand, Qajar, Pahlavi, Islamic Republic", "re_emerged", "alive", "iran", false, false, "The capital leaves: Mashhad, Shiraz, then Tehran; Isfahan becomes a nested cave." ] ], "basis": "Buyid and Seljuk capital; above the marker by the 10th century [CHECK]." }, { "id": "kaifeng", "name": "Kaifeng", "lat": 34.7972, "lon": 114.3076, "kind": "city", "formation": -300, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Chinese system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 303 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 8", "lines": [ 344 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -500, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ -400, 200000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 700, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 742, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 800, 55000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 900, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 400000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1100, 442000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1102, 442000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1126, 420000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1232, 120000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1250, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1330, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1642, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 78000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1751, 79000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1766, 79000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1870, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 233000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 280000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 417350, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 442133, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 474890, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 539293, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 626198, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 681289, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 719862, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 718665, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 860415, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 1093323, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 1087088, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 907, 960, "china", "Five Dynasties capitals", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "china", false, false, "Same dragon, new riders." ], [ 960, 1127, "china", "Northern Song", "changed_hands", "colonized", "china", false, true, "Movable type, paper money, a standing navy (Ch 7 L373). Kaifeng as an interruption (Ch 8 L414)." ], [ 1127, 1233, "china", "Jin (Jurchen)", "colonized", "slain", "china", false, true, "The Jingkang incident, January 1127. The Jin keep the exam: same dragon, new rider." ], [ 1233, 1368, "china", "Mongol, then Yuan", "colonized", "changed_hands", "china", false, true, "Book, Ch 11 L604: the Mongols in China left the apparatus intact." ], [ 1368, 1642, "china", "Ming", "changed_hands", "abandoned", "china", false, true, "In 1642 the Yellow River dikes are cut during Li Zicheng’s siege and the city drowns [CHECK]: a literal stolen river." ], [ 1662, 1938, "china", "Qing, Republic", "re_emerged", "colonized", "china", false, true, "" ], [ 1938, 1945, "japan", "Japan", "colonized", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1945, 2026, "china", "Republic, then People’s Republic", "re_emerged", "alive", "china", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Daliang, capital of Wei [CHECK]; Song Kaifeng held a million inside its walls (Ch 7 L373)." }, { "id": "hangzhou", "name": "Hangzhou (Lin’an)", "lat": 30.2741, "lon": 120.1551, "kind": "city", "formation": 600, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Chinese system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1194 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 591, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 622, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 800, 70000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1077, 85000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1100, 90000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 145000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1170, 145808, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 255000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1201, 260000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1250, 320489, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1273, 432046, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 432000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 432000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1360, 230000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 240000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 250000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 250000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 260000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 260000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 270000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1625, 275000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1650, 281000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1657, 281851, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1681, 292420, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 303000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1731, 322300, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 340000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 387000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1825, 410000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 434000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1875, 200000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 350000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 380000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1944, 606136, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 517000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 1113616, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 1199594, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 1586242, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 2227238, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 3369526, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 4964897, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 5788862, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 6706744, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 6862416, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 6863540, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 7500208, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 589, 907, "china", "Sui and Tang", "gathered", "changed_hands", "china", false, false, "" ], [ 907, 978, "china", "Wuyue (capital)", "changed_hands", "gathered", "china", false, true, "" ], [ 978, 1138, "china", "Northern Song", "gathered", "changed_hands", "china", false, true, "" ], [ 1138, 1276, "china", "Southern Song (capital Lin’an)", "changed_hands", "colonized", "china", false, true, "You can burn every examination hall in Hangzhou and the protocol survives (Ch 24 L1411)." ], [ 1276, 1366, "china", "Yuan", "colonized", "changed_hands", "china", false, true, "" ], [ 1366, 1861, "china", "Ming, then Qing", "changed_hands", "colonized", "china", false, true, "" ], [ 1861, 1864, "taiping", "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom", "colonized", "slain", "taiping", true, false, "" ], [ 1864, 1937, "china", "Qing, then Republic", "re_emerged", "colonized", "china", false, false, "" ], [ 1937, 1945, "japan", "Japan", "colonized", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1945, 2026, "china", "Republic, then People’s Republic", "re_emerged", "alive", "china", false, false, "" ] ], "basis": "Southern terminus of the Grand Canal, 609 [CHECK]; Southern Song capital." }, { "id": "beijing", "name": "Beijing", "lat": 39.9042, "lon": 116.4074, "kind": "city", "formation": 938, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Chinese system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 14", "lines": [ 697 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 19", "lines": [ 994 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1222, 1226 ], "n": 2 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1000, 130000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1200, 401000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1400, 150000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1450, 600000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1500, 672000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1600, 706000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1650, 470000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1700, 650000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1800, 1100000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1850, 1648000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1875, 1310000, "chandler1987", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1949, 2030000, "demog-beijing", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1953, 2768149, "nbs-china", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1964, 7568495, "nbs-china", "province", "high" ], [ 1982, 9230687, "nbs-china", "province", "high" ], [ 2000, 13569194, "nbs-china", "province", "high" ], [ 2010, 19612368, "nbs-china", "province", "high" ], [ 2020, 21893095, "nbs-china", "province", "high" ], [ 2025, 17013303, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 938, 1122, "china", "Liao (Khitan)", "founded", "colonized", "china", false, false, "The sample reads Liao through the People’s Republic as one dragon with interruptions; each rider is listed here." ], [ 1122, 1215, "china", "Jin (Jurchen), capital Zhongdu from 1153", "colonized", "slain", "china", false, true, "" ], [ 1215, 1368, "china", "Mongol, then Yuan (Khanbaliq)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "china", false, true, "Capital from 1267 to 1272 [CHECK]." ], [ 1368, 1644, "china", "Ming (capital from 1421)", "changed_hands", "slain", "china", false, true, "The Bite, 1487, is the dated Chinese specimen (lock)." ], [ 1644, 1644, "shun", "Shun (Li Zicheng)", "overflowed", "changed_hands", null, true, false, "April to June 1644." ], [ 1644, 1912, "china", "Qing", "colonized", "changed_hands", "china", false, false, "Qianlong, 1793, the ouroboros (lock). Anglo-French occupation 1860 and the Eight-Nation Alliance 1900 to 1901 as brief occupations below." ], [ 1860, 1860, "anglo-french-1860", "Anglo-French expedition", "colonized", "abandoned", null, true, false, "The Summer Palace burned, October 1860 [CHECK]." ], [ 1900, 1901, "eight-nation", "Eight-Nation Alliance", "colonized", "abandoned", null, true, false, "" ], [ 1912, 1937, "china", "Republic of China (Beiping after 1928)", "re_emerged", "colonized", "china", false, false, "" ], [ 1937, 1945, "japan", "Japan (and its Provisional Government)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", false, false, "Name restored to Beiping August 15, 1945 (eBeijing)." ], [ 1945, 1949, "china", "Republic of China", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "china", false, false, "Communist forces enter January 31, 1949 without a fight (eBeijing)." ], [ 1949, 2026, "china", "People’s Republic", "changed_hands", "alive", "china", false, true, "Wise elder from 1978 on dragon-stages; China’s five-year self-disruption span (the author, 9/23)." ] ], "basis": "Liao secondary capital from 938; Chandler enters 130,000 for 1000 (sample). The earlier city of Ji was almost certainly above the marker in the Han [CHECK]." }, { "id": "nanjing", "name": "Nanjing", "lat": 32.0603, "lon": 118.7969, "kind": "city", "formation": 300, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Chinese system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1203 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 300, 100000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 361, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 400, 300000, "modelski2003", "", "medium" ], [ 500, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 622, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 975, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 70000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1100, 67000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1102, 67000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1130, 160000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1150, 130000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1200, 130000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1250, 130000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1297, 95000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1300, 95000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1344, 95000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1350, 95000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1391, 473200, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1400, 487000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1450, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1500, 147000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1515, 147013, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1550, 182000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1575, 188000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1592, 194000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1600, 194000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1650, 178000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1666, 173000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 140000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1735, 130000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 100000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1785, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1878, 130000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 270000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 395000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 1020000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1970, 200000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 1609060, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 1727886, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 2055981, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 2767612, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 3298685, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 3897972, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 4520418, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 5224357, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 5942176, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 6794097, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 6800676, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 229, 589, "china", "Eastern Wu and the Six Dynasties", "founded", "slain", "china", false, false, "The Sui raze Jiankang, 589 [CHECK]." ], [ 589, 1356, "china", "Sui through Yuan holders", "colonized", "changed_hands", "china", false, true, "Compressed; Southern Tang capital 937 to 975 [CHECK]." ], [ 1356, 1421, "china", "Ming (capital)", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "china", false, true, "The capital moves to Beijing, 1421 [CHECK]." ], [ 1421, 1853, "china", "Ming, then Qing (secondary capital)", "changed_hands", "colonized", "china", false, true, "" ], [ 1853, 1864, "taiping", "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (Heavenly Capital)", "colonized", "slain", "taiping", false, false, "Seat of the Taiping, 1853 to 1864." ], [ 1864, 1912, "china", "Qing", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "china", false, false, "" ], [ 1912, 1937, "china", "Republic of China (capital 1927)", "changed_hands", "colonized", "china", false, true, "" ], [ 1937, 1945, "japan", "Japan, with Wang Jingwei’s regime from 1940", "colonized", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", false, false, "The Nanjing Massacre, December 1937 (Ch 24 L1422)." ], [ 1945, 1949, "china", "Republic of China", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "china", false, false, "PLA enters April 23, 1949 [CHECK]." ], [ 1949, 2026, "china", "People’s Republic", "changed_hands", "alive", "china", false, true, "" ] ], "basis": "Jianye and Jiankang, capital of the Six Dynasties [CHECK]." }, { "id": "seoul", "name": "Seoul (Hanseong, Gyeongseong)", "lat": 37.5665, "lon": 126.978, "kind": "city", "formation": 1394, "formationBook": 1953, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Korean system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 14", "lines": [ 682 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 16", "lines": [ 803, 813 ], "n": 2 }, { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1212 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1426, 103328, "joseon-registers", "walled_city", "medium" ], [ 1500, 150000, "chandler1987", "walled_city", "medium" ], [ 1575, 125000, "chandler1987", "walled_city", "medium" ], [ 1750, 200000, "joseon-registers", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 1890, 250000, "Seoul", "city_proper", "low" ], [ 1925, 342626, "gg-chosen", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1935, 444098, "gg-chosen", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1940, 935464, "gg-chosen", "city_proper", "medium" ], [ 1949, 1437670, "kosis", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1960, 2445402, "kosis", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1970, 5433198, "kosis", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1980, 8364379, "kosis", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 1990, 10612577, "kosis", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 2000, 9895217, "kosis", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 2010, 9794304, "kosis", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 2020, 9586195, "kosis", "city_proper", "high" ], [ 2025, 22490482, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1394, 1592, "korea-south", "Joseon", "founded", "changed_hands", "korea-south", false, false, "Clenched on gender; hangul ghettoized (sample)." ], [ 1592, 1593, "japan", "Japan (Imjin War)", "colonized", "abandoned", "japan-empire", true, false, "Gyeongbok Palace burned in 1592 (Britannica)." ], [ 1593, 1910, "korea-south", "Joseon", "re_emerged", "colonized", "korea-south", false, false, "Qing invasion of 1636 to 1637 [CHECK] makes Joseon a tributary; the cave stays Korean." ], [ 1910, 1945, "japan", "Japan", "colonized", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", false, false, "Annexation 1910; the city renamed Gyeongseong." ], [ 1945, 1948, "usa", "United States (military government)", "colonized", "re_emerged", "usa", false, false, "" ], [ 1948, 1950, "korea-south", "Republic of Korea", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "korea-south", false, false, "The sample and dragon-stages leave 1945 to 1987 unstaged." ], [ 1950, 1950, "korea-north", "North Korea", "colonized", "changed_hands", "korea-north", true, false, "June 28 to September 28, 1950." ], [ 1950, 1951, "korea-south", "Republic of Korea (UN forces)", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "korea-south", true, false, "" ], [ 1951, 1951, "korea-north", "North Korea and China", "colonized", "changed_hands", "korea-north", true, false, "January 4 to March 1951." ], [ 1951, 2026, "korea-south", "Republic of Korea", "re_emerged", "alive", "korea-south", false, false, "Seoul took forty years to reach wise elder (Ch 14 L844)." ] ], "basis": "Capital of Joseon from 1394; 103,328 inside the walls by 1426 (sample, Joseon registers)." }, { "id": "pyongyang", "name": "Pyongyang", "lat": 39.0392, "lon": 125.7625, "kind": "city", "formation": 427, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "DPRK" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 14", "lines": [ 674, 676, 685, 686 ], "n": 4 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -1000, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -800, 25000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ -650, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 361, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 500, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 622, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1000, 50000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 55000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 65000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 68000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 62000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1881, 75938, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 30000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 400000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 1482374, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 2002402, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 2343362, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 2648331, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 2835217, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 2811681, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 2782509, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 2783447, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 2834492, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 2870201, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 2901588, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 427, 668, "goguryeo", "Goguryeo (capital)", "founded", "slain", null, false, false, "" ], [ 668, 918, "china", "Tang, then Silla frontier", "colonized", "changed_hands", "china", false, false, "" ], [ 918, 1592, "korea-south", "Goryeo, then Joseon", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "korea-south", false, false, "" ], [ 1592, 1593, "japan", "Japan (Imjin War)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", true, false, "" ], [ 1593, 1910, "korea-south", "Joseon", "re_emerged", "colonized", "korea-south", false, false, "" ], [ 1910, 1945, "japan", "Japan", "colonized", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", false, false, "The colonial normal school of Ch 14 L836." ], [ 1945, 1948, "russia", "Soviet Union", "colonized", "changed_hands", "russia", false, false, "Land reform, March 1946 (Ch 14 L838)." ], [ 1948, 1950, "korea-north", "DPRK", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "korea-north", false, false, "" ], [ 1950, 1950, "usa", "UN forces (ROK and US)", "colonized", "abandoned", "usa", true, false, "October 19 to December 5, 1950 [CHECK]." ], [ 1950, 2026, "korea-north", "DPRK", "re_emerged", "alive", "korea-north", false, false, "All three conditions, in ink (Ch 14 L848)." ] ], "basis": "Goguryeo capital from 427 [CHECK]." }, { "id": "tokyo", "name": "Tokyo (Edo)", "lat": 35.6762, "lon": 139.6503, "kind": "city", "formation": 1600, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Japan" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 19", "lines": [ 1003 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 20", "lines": [ 1028 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1600, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1604, 60000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1609, 150000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1650, 500000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1700, 688000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1701, 689000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1721, 700000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1750, 694000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1798, 685000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1800, 685000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1804, 685000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1825, 732000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1844, 769000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1850, 780000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1854, 788000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1875, 780621, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1900, 1497000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1914, 3500000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 5300000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 7000000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1970, 20450000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 24281618, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 25912201, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 27209324, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 28588983, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 29222295, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 30302560, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 31352582, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 32558339, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 33103603, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 33698874, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 33412512, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1590, 1868, "japan", "Tokugawa shogunate", "founded", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", false, false, "Sealed for two hundred and twenty years when Perry arrives, July 1853 (Ch 20 L1220)." ], [ 1868, 1945, "japan", "Meiji state", "changed_hands", "colonized", "japan-empire", false, true, "Same dragon, new rider." ], [ 1945, 1952, "usa", "United States (SCAP occupation)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "usa", false, false, "" ], [ 1952, 2026, "japan", "Japan", "re_emerged", "alive", "japan-empire", false, false, "Wise elder from 1946 on dragon-stages." ] ], "basis": "Edo grows from a castle town after 1590; one of the largest cities on earth by 1700 [CHECK]." }, { "id": "taipei", "name": "Taipei", "lat": 25.033, "lon": 121.5654, "kind": "city", "formation": 1895, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1209 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1900, 80000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1925, 204000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1950, 450000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1970, 2490000, "chandler1987", "", "medium" ], [ 1975, 3691099, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1980, 4669003, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1985, 5791742, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1990, 6841153, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 1995, 7432342, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2000, 7898577, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2005, 8233746, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2010, 8604396, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2015, 8854906, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2020, 9233776, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ], [ 2025, 9136792, "wup2025", "agglomeration", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1875, 1895, "china", "Qing", "founded", "colonized", "china", false, false, "" ], [ 1895, 1945, "japan", "Japan", "colonized", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", false, false, "Annexation 1895 (Taiwan.gov)." ], [ 1945, 2026, "roc-taiwan", "Republic of China", "re_emerged", "alive", "roc-taiwan", false, false, "Capital from 1949. The National Palace Museum hoard crosses the strait, 1948 to 1949 (Ch 24 L1428): one dragon’s hoard landing in another cave." ] ], "basis": "Qing prefectural city from 1875; above the marker by the 1890s [CHECK]." }, { "id": "singapore", "name": "Singapore", "lat": 1.3521, "lon": 103.8198, "kind": "city", "formation": 1824, "formationBook": 1965, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 35 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 16", "lines": [ 808, 809, 810, 811, 813 ], "n": 5 }, { "ch": "Ch 18", "lines": [ 887 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 24", "lines": [ 1212 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1819, 1000, "singstat", "settlement", "low" ], [ 1824, 10683, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 1849, 59043, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 1871, 97111, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 1901, 228555, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 1931, 557745, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 1947, 938144, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 1957, 1445929, "singstat", "settlement", "medium" ], [ 1965, 1886900, "singstat", "settlement", "medium" ], [ 1970, 2074507, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 1990, 3047132, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 2010, 5076732, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 2020, 5685807, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ], [ 2025, 6111175, "singstat", "settlement", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1300, 1819, "singapore", "Temasek and Johor", "formed", "changed_hands", null, false, false, "Below the marker; dragon-stages stages it baby." ], [ 1819, 1942, "uk", "Britain (EIC, then the Straits Settlements)", "founded", "colonized", "uk-empire", false, false, "Local dragon staged young, 1819 to 1959 (dragon-stages)." ], [ 1942, 1945, "japan", "Japan (Syonan-to)", "colonized", "changed_hands", "japan-empire", false, false, "February 1942 to September 1945 [CHECK]." ], [ 1945, 1959, "uk", "Britain", "re_emerged", "changed_hands", "uk-empire", false, false, "" ], [ 1959, 1965, "singapore", "Self-governing state, then Malaysia", "changed_hands", "changed_hands", "malaysia", false, false, "Malaysia 1963 to 1965; expelled August 9, 1965 (Ch 16 L980)." ], [ 1965, 2026, "singapore", "Republic of Singapore", "re_emerged", "alive", null, false, true, "The only young-to-wise-elder jump in the dataset (sample)." ] ], "basis": "First census, 1824: 10,683 (sample, singstat). The book dates the cave from 1965 (Ch 16 L981), the year it got a dragon of its own." }, { "id": "dubai", "name": "Dubai", "lat": 25.2048, "lon": 55.2708, "kind": "city", "formation": 1900, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "UAE federation of seven emirate caves" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 35 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1822, 1200, "dsc-dubai", "settlement", "low" ], [ 1900, 10000, "Lorimer's", "settlement", "medium" ], [ 1930, 20000, "dsc-dubai", "settlement", "low" ], [ 1940, 38000, "dsc-dubai", "settlement", "low" ], [ 1960, 40000, "dsc-dubai", "settlement", "low" ], [ 1968, 58971, "dsc-dubai", "emirate", "high" ], [ 1975, 183000, "dsc-dubai", "emirate", "high" ], [ 1985, 370800, "dsc-dubai", "emirate", "high" ], [ 1995, 674000, "dsc-dubai", "emirate", "high" ], [ 2010, 1905476, "dsc-dubai", "emirate", "high" ], [ 2015, 2446675, "dsc-dubai", "emirate", "high" ], [ 2019, 3355900, "dsc-dubai", "emirate", "high" ], [ 2025, 3944751, "dsc-dubai", "emirate", "high" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1833, 1971, "dubai-sheikhdom", "Al Maktoum sheikhdom", "formed", "re_emerged", null, false, false, "Under British Trucial protection, never administered as a colony (sample)." ], [ 1971, 2026, "uae", "United Arab Emirates", "gathered", "alive", "uae", false, false, "A cave desalinated out of a sandbar: a wise elder’s toolkit, an adult’s grip (lock, Technology is not wisdom)." ] ], "basis": "Lorimer’s Gazetteer, about 10,000 (sample)." }, { "id": "las-vegas", "name": "Las Vegas", "lat": 36.1699, "lon": -115.1398, "kind": "city", "formation": 1936, "formationBook": null, "belowMarker": false, "status": "alive", "collapse": null, "parents": [ "Nevada cave (inside the American system)", "American cave system" ], "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 35 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1910, 3321, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 1920, 4859, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 1930, 8532, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 1940, 16414, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 1950, 48289, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 1960, 127016, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 1970, 273288, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 1980, 463087, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 1990, 741459, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 2000, 1375765, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 2010, 1951269, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 2020, 2265461, "uscensus", "county", "high" ], [ 2025, 2407226, "uscensus", "county", "medium" ] ], "occupancy": [ [ 1855, 1857, "nevada-mormon", "Mormon mission", "founded", "abandoned", null, true, false, "Below the marker (sample note)." ], [ 1905, 2026, "usa", "United States (Nevada)", "founded", "alive", "nevada", false, false, "Railroad townsite auctioned May 15, 1905. A dam on the Colorado put a cave here (Prologue L35). Nested: Las Vegas in Nevada’s cave in the American system; forty-eight caves under one dragon in 1931 (Ch 3 L195)." ] ], "basis": "Clark County 8,532 in 1930 and 16,414 in 1940 (sample, US census); Hoover Dam closes 1936." }, { "id": "tasmania", "name": "Tasmania", "lat": -42.0, "lon": 146.6, "kind": "absence", "formation": null, "belowMarker": true, "status": "no cave formed", "collapse": null, "span": [ -3500, 1876 ], "note": "About four thousand people, cut off when the land bridge flooded; the population was too small to keep the knowledge alive (Ch 6).", "chapters": [ { "ch": "Prologue", "lines": [ 31 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 6", "lines": [ 245, 246, 247, 248, 249 ], "n": 5 }, { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 299, 300, 303 ], "n": 3 }, { "ch": "Ch 13", "lines": [ 658 ], "n": 1 }, { "ch": "Ch 21", "lines": [ 1066 ], "n": 1 } ], "snapshots": [ [ -3500, 4000, "book", "area_estimate", "low" ] ], "occupancy": [], "parents": [] }, { "id": "comancheria", "name": "Comancheria", "lat": 34.5, "lon": -101.5, "kind": "absence", "formation": null, "belowMarker": true, "status": "no cave formed", "collapse": null, "span": [ 1706, 1875 ], "note": "Tens of thousands of riders across the southern Plains, never gathered into one place long enough to be sorted (Ch 7).", "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280 ], "n": 9 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1706, 30000, "hamalainen2008", "area_estimate", "low" ] ], "occupancy": [], "parents": [] }, { "id": "aotearoa", "name": "Aotearoa (the Maori)", "lat": -38.5, "lon": 175.5, "kind": "absence", "formation": null, "belowMarker": true, "status": "no cave formed", "collapse": null, "span": [ 1300, 1840 ], "note": "About a hundred thousand people across both islands in 1769; the Musket Wars killed as much as a third (Ch 7).", "chapters": [ { "ch": "Ch 7", "lines": [ 284, 285, 286, 287, 290 ], "n": 5 } ], "snapshots": [ [ 1300, 100000, "pool1991", "area_estimate", "low" ] ], "occupancy": [], "parents": [] } ] }